Zobrazení zdroje stránky Wikipedista:Faigl.ladislav/sandboxF

=== Moderní dějiny ===
Circumcision did not become a common medical procedure in the Anglophone world until the late 19th century.<ref name=darby_2003/> At that time, British and American doctors began recommending it primarily as a deterrent to masturbation.<ref name=darby_2003/><ref name=gollaher_2001_ch4/> Prior to the 20th century, masturbation was believed to be the cause of a wide range of physical and mental illnesses including epilepsy, paralysis, impotence, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, feeblemindedness, and insanity.<ref name=bullough_1994/><ref name=conrad_1992/> In 1855, motivated in part by an interest in promoting circumcision to reduce masturbation, English physician [[Jonathan Hutchinson]] published his findings that Jews had a lower prevalence of certain venereal diseases.<ref name=darby_2005/> While pursuing a successful career as a general practitioner, Hutchinson went on to advocate circumcision for health reasons for the next fifty years,<ref name=darby_2005/> and eventually earned a [[knighthood]] for his overall contributions to medicine.<ref name=matthew_2004/> In America, one of the first modern physicians to advocate the procedure was [[Lewis Sayre]], a founder of the [[American Medical Association]]. In 1870, Sayre began using circumcision as a purported cure for several cases of young boys diagnosed with paralysis or significant motor problems. He thought the procedure ameliorated such problems based on a "reflex neurosis" theory of disease, which held that excessive stimulation of the genitals was a disturbance to the equilibrium of the nervous system and a cause of systemic problems.<ref name=darby_2003/> The use of circumcision to promote good health also fit in with the germ theory of disease during that time, which saw the foreskin as being filled with infection-causing [[smegma]] (a mixture of shed skin cells and oils).  Sayre published works on the subject and promoted it energetically in speeches.  Contemporary physicians picked up on Sayre's new treatment, which they believed could prevent or cure a wide-ranging array of medical problems and social ills.  Its popularity spread with publications such as Peter Charles Remondino's ''History of Circumcision''.  By the turn of the century, in both America and Great Britain, infant circumcision was near universally recommended.<ref name=alanis_2004/><ref name=gollaher_2001_ch4/>

After the end of [[World War II]], Britain moved to a [[publicly funded health care|nationalized health care]] system, and so looked to ensure that each medical procedure covered by the new system was cost-effective and the procedure for non-medical reasons was not covered by the national healthcare system. [[Douglas Gairdner]]'s 1949 article "The Fate of the Foreskin" argued that the evidence available at that time showed that the risks outweighed the known benefits.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gairdner D |title=The fate of the foreskin: a study of circumcision. |journal=Br Med J |date=1949 |volume=2 |issue=4642 |pages=1433–7 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2051968/pdf/brmedj03656-0009.pdf |doi= 10.1136/bmj.2.4642.1433|pmid=15408299 |pmc=2051968 }}</ref> Circumcision rates dropped in Britain and in the rest of Europe. In the 1970s, national medical associations in Australia and Canada issued recommendations against routine infant circumcision, leading to drops in the rates of both of those countries. The United States made similar statements in the 1970s, but stopped short of recommending against it — simply stating that it has no medical benefit. Since then they have amended their policy statements several times with the current recommendation being that the benefits outweigh the risks, but they do not recommend it routinely.<ref name=alanis_2004/><ref name=gollaher_2001_ch4/>

An association between circumcision and reduced heterosexual HIV infection rates was suggested in 1986.<ref name=alanis_2004/>  Experimental evidence was needed to establish a causal relationship, so three [[randomized controlled trial]]s were commissioned as a means to reduce the effect of any [[confounding|confounding factors]].<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2003/> Trials took place in South Africa, [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]].<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2009/> All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards on ethical grounds because those in the circumcised group had a lower rate of HIV contraction than the control group.<ref name=siegfried_Cochrane_2009/> Subsequently, the World Health Organization promoted circumcision in high-risk populations as part of an overall program to reduce the spread of HIV,<ref name=WHO_HIV_2007/> although some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials, prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy.<ref name=boyle_hill_2011/><ref name=dowsett_2007/><ref name=darby_2011/><ref name=frisch_2013/> The Male Circumcision Clearinghouse website was formed in 2009 by WHO, UNAIDS, FHI and AVAC to provide current evidence-based guidance, information, and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services.<ref name=NYTimes_2009/><ref name=AVAC_2012/>