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{{Short description|Virus that causes COVID-19}}
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{{About|the virus that causes COVID-19|the virus that causes SARS<!--SARS should not be linked here per [[Wikipedia:Hatnote]] and [[WP:RELATED]]-->|SARS-CoV-1
{{pp-30-500|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2021}}
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<tr><td>{{colorbull|1=#fe8354|2=round|size=150}} Orange:</td><td>[[glycan]]</td></tr></table>
| parent = Sarbecovirus<!--Incertae sedis/Betacoronavirus-->
| species = Betacoronavirus pandemicum
| virus = Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
| synonyms = * 2019-nCoV<!--Please see [[Synonym (taxonomy)]] before adding unofficial names here.-->
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* [[Variants of SARS-CoV-2|Full list]]
}}
{{COVID-19 pandemic sidebar}}
'''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2''' ('''SARS‑CoV‑2''')<ref name="CoronavirusStudyGroup" /> is a strain of
SARS‑CoV‑2 is a
[[Epidemiological]] studies estimate that
==Terminology==
[[File:NOVO-NEW-新.2019-nCoV.jpg|thumb|upright|Sign with provisional name "2019-nCoV"|left]]During the initial outbreak in [[Wuhan]], China, various names were used for the virus; some names used by different sources included "the coronavirus" or "Wuhan coronavirus".<ref name="HuangNPR" /><ref name="Fox2020" /> In January 2020, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) recommended "2019 novel coronavirus" (2019-nCoV)<ref name="CDC-nCoV" /><ref name="WHO-SR10" /> as the provisional name for the virus. This was in accordance with WHO's 2015 guidance<ref name="WHOnamingguidelines" /> against using geographical locations, animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names.<ref name="TodayNameMixup" /><ref name="EconomistSinophobia" />
On 11 February 2020, the [[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] adopted the official name "severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2" (SARS‑CoV‑2).<ref name="COVIDname date" /> To avoid confusion with the disease [[SARS]], the WHO sometimes refers to SARS‑CoV‑2 as "the COVID-19 virus" in public health communications<ref name="QZ-Why" /><ref name="COVIDname public" /> and the name HCoV-19 was included in some research articles.<ref name="Zoonotic" /><ref name="Proximal" /><ref name="NEJM-Stability" /> Referring to COVID-19 as the "Wuhan virus" has been described as dangerous by WHO officials, and as [[xenophobia|xenophobic]] by
==Infection and transmission==
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{{More medical citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
}}
Human-to-human [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission]] of SARS‑CoV‑2 was confirmed on 20 January 2020 during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="Chan24Jan2020" /><ref name="LiMar2020" /><ref name="Kessler17Apr2020" /><ref name="Kuo21Jan2020" /> Transmission was initially assumed to occur primarily via [[respiratory droplet]]s from coughs and sneezes within a range of about {{convert|1.8|m|ft|0|adj=ri1}}.<ref name="CDCTrans" /><ref name="NBCSpread" /> Laser light scattering experiments suggest that [[Speech|speaking]] is an additional mode of transmission<ref name="Anfrinrud 2020" /><ref name="Stadnytskyi et al 2020" /> and a far-reaching<ref name= "Klompas" /> one, indoors, with little air flow.<ref name= "LivescienceTalkingWorse" /><ref name= "deOliveira" /> Other studies have suggested that the virus may be [[airborne pathogen|airborne]] as well, with [[aerosols]] potentially being able to transmit the virus.<ref name="NYT-20200704am" /><ref name="ZZeynep" /><ref name="lew-d-mou" /> During human-to-human transmission, between 200 and 800 infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 [[virion]]s are thought to initiate a new infection.<ref name="SCI-20201123" /><ref name="NatureTempShedding" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Watanabe T, Bartrand TA, Weir MH, Omura T, Haas CN | title = Development of a dose-response model for SARS coronavirus | journal = Risk Analysis | volume = 30 | issue = 7 | pages = 1129–38 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20497390 | pmc = 7169223 | doi = 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01427.x | bibcode = 2010RiskA..30.1129W }}</ref> If confirmed, aerosol transmission has biosafety implications because a major concern associated with the risk of working with emerging viruses in the laboratory is the generation of aerosols from various laboratory activities which are not immediately recognizable and may affect other scientific personnel.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Artika IM, Ma'roef CN | title = Laboratory biosafety for handling emerging viruses | journal = Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | pages = 483–491 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 32289025 | pmc = 7103938 | doi = 10.1016/j.apjtb.2017.01.020 }}</ref> Indirect contact via [[Fomite|contaminated surfaces]] is another possible cause of infection.<ref name="WHO-Workplace" /> Preliminary research indicates that the virus may remain viable on plastic ([[polypropylene]]) and [[stainless steel]] ([[SAE 304 stainless steel|AISI 304]]) for up to three days, but it does not survive on cardboard for more than one day or on copper for more than four hours.<ref name="NEJM-Stability" /> The virus is inactivated by soap, which destabilizes its [[lipid bilayer]].<ref name="AtlanticSuccess" /><ref name="NatGeoSoap" /> Viral [[RNA]] has also been found in [[Stool test|stool sample]]s and semen from infected individuals.<ref name="NEJM-FirstUS" /><ref name="Semen" />
The degree to which the virus is infectious during the [[incubation period]] is uncertain, but research has indicated that the [[pharynx]] reaches peak [[viral load]] approximately four days after infection<ref name="NaturePeakLoad" /><ref name="ScienceFlawed" /> or in the first week of symptoms and declines thereafter.<ref name="LancetLoad" /> The duration of SARS-CoV-2 [[Viral shedding|RNA shedding]] is generally between 3 and 46 days after symptom onset.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Avanzato VA, Matson MJ, Seifert SN, Pryce R, Williamson BN, Anzick SL, Barbian K, Judson SD, Fischer ER, Martens C, Bowden TA, de Wit E, Riedo FX, Munster VJ
A study by a team of researchers from the [[University of North Carolina]] found that the [[nasal cavity]] is seemingly the dominant initial site of infection, with subsequent [[Pulmonary aspiration|aspiration]]-mediated virus-seeding into the lungs in SARS‑CoV‑2 pathogenesis.<ref name="Hou2020" /> They found that there was an infection gradient from high in proximal towards low in distal pulmonary epithelial cultures, with a focal infection in ciliated cells and type 2 pneumocytes in the airway and alveolar regions respectively.<ref name="Hou2020" />
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The first known infections from SARS‑CoV‑2 were discovered in Wuhan, China.<ref name="NatureZhou" /> The original source of viral transmission to humans remains unclear, as does whether the virus became [[pathogen]]ic before or after the [[spillover event]].<ref name="Proximal" /><ref name="early" /><ref name="PopSciJan" /> Because many of the early infectees were workers at the [[Huanan Seafood Market]],<ref name="LancetClinical" /><ref name="LancetCharacteristics" /> it has been suggested that the virus might have originated from the market.<ref name="Proximal" /><ref name="nature feb2020" /> However, other research indicates that visitors may have introduced the virus to the market, which then facilitated rapid expansion of the infections.<ref name="early" /><ref name="XivDecoding" /> A March 2021 WHO-convened report stated that human spillover via an intermediate animal host was the most likely explanation, with direct spillover from bats next most likely. Introduction through the food supply chain and the Huanan Seafood Market was considered another possible, but less likely, explanation.<ref name="WHOconvened" /> An analysis in November 2021, however, said that the earliest-known case had been misidentified and that the preponderance of early cases linked to the Huanan Market argued for it being the source.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Worobey M | title = Dissecting the early COVID-19 cases in Wuhan | journal = Science | volume = 374 | issue = 6572 | pages = 1202–1204 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34793199 | doi = 10.1126/science.abm4454 | bibcode = 2021Sci...374.1202W | s2cid = 244403410 }}</ref>
For a virus recently acquired through a cross-species transmission, rapid evolution is expected.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Kang L, He G, Sharp AK, Wang X, Brown AM, Michalak P, Weger-Lucarelli J | title = A selective sweep in the Spike gene has driven SARS-CoV-2 human adaptation | journal = Cell | volume = 184 | issue = 17 | pages = 4392–4400.e4 | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34289344 | pmc = 8260498 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.007 }}</ref> The mutation rate estimated from early cases of SARS-CoV-2 was of {{val|6.54|e=-4}} per site per year.<ref name="WHOconvened" /> Coronaviruses in general have high genetic [[Phenotypic plasticity|plasticity]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Decaro N, Lorusso A | title = Novel human coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): A lesson from animal coronaviruses | journal = Veterinary Microbiology | volume = 244 | page = 108693 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32402329 | pmc = 7195271 | doi = 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108693 }}</ref> but SARS-CoV-2's viral evolution is slowed by the [[Proofreading (biology)|RNA proofreading]] capability of its replication machinery.<ref name="RobsonF2020Aug" /> For comparison, the viral mutation rate in vivo of SARS-CoV-2 has been found to be lower than that of influenza.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Tao K, Tzou PL, Nouhin J, Gupta RK, de Oliveira T, Kosakovsky Pond SL, Fera D, Shafer RW
Research into the natural reservoir of the virus that caused the [[2002–2004 SARS outbreak]] has resulted in the discovery of many [[Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1|SARS-like bat coronaviruses]], most originating in [[horseshoe bat]]s. The closest match by far, published in ''[[Nature (journal)]]'' in February 2022, were viruses [[BANAL-52]] (96.8% resemblance to SARS‑CoV‑2), BANAL-103 and BANAL-236, collected in three different species of bats in [[Feuang district|Feuang]], Laos.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal||last1=Temmam|first1=Sarah|last2=Vongphayloth|first2=Khamsing|last3=Salazar|first3=Eduard Baquero|last4=Munier|first4=Sandie|last5=Bonomi|first5=Max|last6=Régnault|first6=Béatrice|last7=Douangboubpha|first7=Bounsavane|last8=Karami|first8=Yasaman|last9=Chretien|first9=Delphine|last10=Sanamxay|first10=Daosavanh|last11=Xayaphet|first11=Vilakhan|date=February 2022|title=Bat coronaviruses related to SARS-CoV-2 and infectious for human cells|journal=Nature|volume=604 |issue=7905 |pages=330–336 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04532-4 |pmid=35172323 |bibcode=2022Natur.604..330T |s2cid=246902858 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal||last=Mallapaty|first=Smriti|date=24 September 2021|title=Closest known relatives of virus behind COVID-19 found in Laos|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=597|issue=7878|page=603|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02596-2|pmid=34561634 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..603M |s2cid=237626322 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||title=Newly Discovered Bat Viruses Give Hints to Covid's Origins|date=14 October 2021|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/14/science/bat-coronaviruses-lab-leak.html|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> An earlier source published in February 2020 identified the virus [[RaTG13]], collected in bats in [[Mojiang County|Mojiang]], Yunnan, China to be the closest to SARS‑CoV‑2, with 96.1% resemblance.<ref name="NatureZhou" /><ref name="NCBI-Bat3" /> None of the above are its direct ancestor.<ref>{{#invoke:cite web ||title=The 'Occam's Razor Argument' Has Not Shifted in Favor of a Lab Leak |url=https://www.snopes.com/news/2021/07/16/lab-leak-evidence/ |website=Snopes.com |date=16 July 2021 |publisher=Snopes |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.MAM.33160.b dor - Rhinolophus sinicus - skin.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Samples taken from ''Rhinolophus sinicus'', a species of [[horseshoe bat]]s, show an 80% resemblance to SARS‑CoV‑2.]]
Bats are considered the most likely natural reservoir of SARS‑CoV‑2.<ref name="WHOconvened" /><ref name="LancetBinding" /> Differences between the bat coronavirus and SARS‑CoV‑2 suggest that humans may have been infected via an intermediate host;<ref name="nature feb2020" /> although the source of introduction into humans remains unknown.<ref name="OKeeffeJ2021Mar">{{#invoke:cite book ||vauthors=O'Keeffe J, Freeman S, Nicol A |date=21 March 2021 |title=The Basics of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission |url=https://ncceh.ca/documents/evidence-review/basics-sars-cov-2-transmission |publisher=National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health (NCCEH) |location=Vancouver, BC |isbn=978-1-988234-54-0 |access-date=12 May 2021 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512134422/https://ncceh.ca/documents/evidence-review/basics-sars-cov-2-transmission |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Holmes2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Holmes EC, Goldstein SA, Rasmussen AL, Robertson DL, Crits-Christoph A, Wertheim JO, Anthony SJ, Barclay WS, Boni MF, Doherty PC, Farrar J
Although the role of [[pangolins]] as an intermediate host was initially posited (a study published in July 2020 suggested that pangolins are an intermediate host of SARS‑CoV‑2-like coronaviruses<ref name="XiaoK2020July" /><ref name="ZhaoJ2020" />), subsequent studies have not substantiated their contribution to the spillover.<ref name="WHOconvened" /> Evidence against this hypothesis includes the fact that pangolin virus samples are too distant to SARS-CoV-2: isolates obtained from pangolins seized in [[Guangdong]] were only 92% identical in sequence to the SARS‑CoV‑2 genome (matches above 90 percent may sound high, but in genomic terms it is a wide evolutionary gap<ref>{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Why it's so tricky to trace the origin of COVID-19 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/why-its-so-tricky-to-trace-the-origin-of-covid-19 |work=Science |publisher=National Geographic |date=10 September 2021 }}</ref>). In addition, despite similarities in a few critical amino acids,<ref name="HuB2020Oct" /> pangolin virus samples exhibit poor binding to the human ACE2 receptor.<ref name="GiovanettiM2020Nov" />
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}}
SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as [[coronavirus]]es.<ref name="Fox2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Fox D |title=What you need to know about the novel coronavirus |journal=Nature |date=January 2020 |pmid=33483684 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00209-y|s2cid=213064026 }}</ref> It is a [[Positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus|positive-sense single-stranded RNA]] (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.<ref name="V'kovskik:21">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=V'kovski P, Kratzel A, Steiner S, Stalder H, Thiel V |title=Coronavirus biology and replication: implications for SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=155–170 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33116300 |pmc=7592455 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-00468-6}}</ref> Human coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the [[common cold]] to more severe diseases such as [[Middle East respiratory syndrome]] (MERS, fatality rate ~34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after [[Human coronavirus 229E|229E]], [[Human coronavirus NL63|NL63]], [[Human coronavirus OC43|OC43]], [[Human coronavirus HKU1|HKU1]], [[Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|MERS-CoV]], and the original [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]].<ref name="NEJM-Novel">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P, Zhan F, Ma X, Wang D, Xu W, Wu G, Gao GF, Tan W
Like the SARS-related coronavirus implicated in the 2003 SARS outbreak, SARS‑CoV‑2 is a member of the subgenus ''[[Sarbecovirus]]'' ([[beta-CoV]] lineage B).<ref name="NextstrainPhylogeny" /><ref name="Wong2019" /> Coronaviruses undergo frequent recombination.<ref name="Singhy:21">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Singh D, Yi SV | title = On the origin and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Experimental & Molecular Medicine | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 537–547 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 33864026 | pmc = 8050477 | doi = 10.1038/s12276-021-00604-z }}</ref> The mechanism of recombination in unsegmented RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 is generally by copy-choice replication, in which gene material switches from one RNA template molecule to another during replication.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Jackson B, Boni MF, Bull MJ, Colleran A, Colquhoun RM, Darby AC, Haldenby S, Hill V, Lucaci A, McCrone JT, Nicholls SM, O'Toole Á, Pacchiarini N, Poplawski R, Scher E, Todd F, Webster HJ, Whitehead M, Wierzbicki C, Loman NJ, Connor TR, Robertson DL, Pybus OG, Rambaut A
[[File:Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (49597020718).jpg|thumb|[[Transmission electron micrograph]] of SARS‑CoV‑2 virions (red) isolated from a patient during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]|alt=Micrograph of SARS‑CoV‑2 virus particles isolated from a patient]]
A distinguishing feature of SARS‑CoV‑2 is its incorporation of a [[Amino acid#Side chains|polybasic]] site cleaved by [[furin]],<ref name="HuB2020Oct" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Hossain |first1=Md. Golzar |last2=Tang |first2=
Viral genetic sequence data can provide critical information about whether viruses separated by time and space are likely to be epidemiologically linked.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Worobey M, Pekar J, Larsen BB, Nelson MI, Hill V, Joy JB, Rambaut A, Suchard MA, Wertheim JO, Lemey P
On 11 February 2020, the [[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] announced that according to existing rules that compute hierarchical relationships among coronaviruses based on five [[conserved sequence]]s of nucleic acids, the differences between what was then called 2019-nCoV and the virus from the 2003 SARS outbreak were insufficient to make them separate [[viral species]]. Therefore, they identified 2019-nCoV as a virus of ''[[Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus]]''.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||author=Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses |title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Nature Microbiology |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=536–544 |date=April 2020 |pmid=32123347 |pmc=7095448 |doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z}}</ref></onlyinclude>
In July 2020, scientists reported that a more infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 variant with [[coronavirus spike protein|spike protein]] variant G614 has replaced D614 as the dominant form in the pandemic.<ref name="Medicalxpress.com">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=New, more infectious strain of COVID-19 now dominates global cases of virus: study |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-07-infectious-strain-covid-dominates-global.html |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=medicalxpress.com |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117010819/https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-07-infectious-strain-covid-dominates-global.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Korber et al 2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Korber B, Fischer WM, Gnanakaran S, Yoon H, Theiler J, Abfalterer W, Hengartner N, Giorgi EE, Bhattacharya T, Foley B, Hastie KM, Parker MD, Partridge DG, Evans CM, Freeman TM, de Silva TI, McDanal C, Perez LG, Tang H, Moon-Walker A, Whelan SP, LaBranche CC, Saphire EO, Montefiori DC
Coronavirus genomes and subgenomes encode six [[open reading frame]]s (ORFs).<ref name="Dhama2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Dhama K, Khan S, Tiwari R, Sircar S, Bhat S, Malik YS, Singh KP, Chaicumpa W, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodriguez-Morales AJ
=== Phylogenetic tree ===
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== Virology ==
===
[[File:Coronavirus virion structure.svg|alt=Figure of a spherical SARSr-CoV virion showing locations of structural proteins forming the viral envelope and the inner nucleocapsid|thumb|right|Structure of a [[SARSr-CoV]] virion]]
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=== Genome ===
As of early 2022, about 7 million SARS-CoV-2 genomes had been sequenced and deposited into public databases and another 800,000 or so were added each month.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||last1=Sokhansanj |first1=Bahrad A. |last2=Rosen |first2=Gail L. |date=26 April 2022 |editor-last=Gaglia |editor-first=Marta M. |title=Mapping Data to Deep Understanding: Making the Most of the Deluge of SARS-CoV-2 Genome Sequences |journal=mSystems |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=e00035–22 |doi=10.1128/msystems.00035-22|pmid=35311562 |pmc=9040592 |issn=2379-5077}}</ref> By September 2023, the [[GISAID]] EpiCoV database contained more than 16 million genome sequences.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GISAID - gisaid.org |url=https://gisaid.org |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=gisaid.org |language=en}}</ref>
SARS-CoV-2 has a linear, [[Sense (molecular biology)|positive-sense]], single-stranded RNA genome about 30,000 bases long.<ref name="V'kovskik:21" /> Its genome has a bias against [[GC-content|cytosine (C) and guanine (G) nucleotides]], like other coronaviruses.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Kandeel M, Ibrahim A, Fayez M, Al-Nazawi M |title=From SARS and MERS CoVs to SARS-CoV-2: Moving toward more biased codon usage in viral structural and nonstructural genes |journal=Journal of Medical Virology |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=660–666 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32159237 |pmc=7228358 |doi=10.1002/jmv.25754}}</ref> The genome has the highest composition of [[Uridine|U]] (32.2%), followed by [[Adenosine|A]] (29.9%), and a similar composition of [[Guanine|G]] (19.6%) and [[Cytosine|C]] (18.3%).<ref name=":02">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Hou W |title=Characterization of codon usage pattern in SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Virology Journal |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=138 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32928234 |pmc=7487440 |doi=10.1186/s12985-020-01395-x|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[GC skew|nucleotide bias]] arises from the mutation of guanines and cytosines to adenosines and [[uracil]]s, respectively.<ref name=":12">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wang Y, Mao JM, Wang GD, Luo ZP, Yang L, Yao Q, Chen KP |title=Human SARS-CoV-2 has evolved to reduce CG dinucleotide in its open reading frames |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=12331 |date=July 2020 |pmid=32704018 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-69342-y |pmc=7378049|bibcode=2020NatSR..1012331W }}</ref> The mutation of [[CpG dinucleotides|CG dinucleotides]] is thought to arise to avoid the [[Antiviral protein|zinc finger antiviral protein]] related defense mechanism of cells,<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Rice AM, Castillo Morales A, Ho AT, Mordstein C, Mühlhausen S, Watson S, Cano L, Young B, Kudla G, Hurst LD
=== Replication cycle ===
Virus infections start when viral particles bind to host surface cellular receptors.<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wang Q, Zhang Y, Wu L, Niu S, Song C, Zhang Z, Lu G, Qiao C, Hu Y, Yuen KY, Wang Q, Zhou H, Yan J, Qi J
Initial spike protein priming by [[TMPRSS2|transmembrane protease, serine 2]] (TMPRSS2) is essential for entry of SARS‑CoV‑2.<ref name="HoffmanCell" /> The host protein [[neuropilin 1]] (NRP1) may aid the virus in host cell entry using ACE2.<ref name="CuervoNZ2020Nov" /> After a SARS‑CoV‑2 virion attaches to a target cell, the cell's TMPRSS2 cuts open the spike protein of the virus, exposing a [[fusion peptide]] in the S2 subunit, and the host receptor ACE2.<ref name="CEBMcoronaviruses" /> After fusion, an [[endosome]] forms around the virion, separating it from the rest of the host cell. The virion escapes when the [[pH]] of the endosome drops or when [[cathepsin]], a host [[cysteine]] protease, cleaves it.<ref name="CEBMcoronaviruses" /> The virion then releases RNA into the cell and forces the cell to produce and disseminate [[Viral replication|copies of the virus]], which infect more cells.<ref name="econ-anatomy-killer" />
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== Treatment and drug development ==
Very few drugs are known to effectively inhibit SARS‑CoV‑2. [[Masitinib]]
[[COVID Moonshot]] is an international collaborative [[open-science]] project started in March 2020 with the goal of developing an un-[[patented]] [[Oral medicine|oral]] [[antiviral drug]] for treatment of SARS-CoV-2.<ref name="Whipple">{{#invoke:cite news || vauthors = Whipple T |title=Moonshot is the spanner in the Covid-19 works the country needs |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/moonshot-is-the-spanner-in-the-covid-19-works-the-country-needs-bnf0z5t7t |access-date=5 November 2021 |work=The Times |date=23 October 2021}}</ref>
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|Alpha (B.1.1.7)
|(40-90% higher than previous variants)
|<ref>{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Davies NG, Abbott S, Barnard RC, Jarvis CI, Kucharski AJ, Munday JD, Pearson CA, Russell TW, Tully DC, Washburne AD, Wenseleers T, Gimma A, Waites W, Wong KL, van Zandvoort K, Silverman JD, Diaz-Ordaz K, Keogh R, Eggo RM, Funk S, Jit M, Atkins KE, Edmunds WJ
|-
|Delta (B.1.617.2)
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There have been about 96,000 confirmed cases of infection in mainland China.<ref name="JHU_ticker" /> While the proportion of infections that result in [[COVID-19 pandemic#Cases|confirmed cases]] or progress to diagnosable disease remains unclear,<ref name="STAT-Severity" /> one mathematical model estimated that 75,815 people were infected on 25 January 2020 in Wuhan alone, at a time when the number of confirmed cases worldwide was only 2,015.<ref name="pmid32014114" /> Before 24 February 2020, over 95% of all deaths from [[COVID-19]] worldwide had occurred in [[Hubei|Hubei province]], where Wuhan is located.<ref name="GuardianLeap" /><ref name="SunChinaAfrica" /> As of {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|date|editlink=|ref=no}}, the percentage had decreased to {{percentage|3216|{{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|deaths|editlink=no|ref=no}}|sigfig=2}}.{{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|ref=yes}}
As of {{Cases in the COVID-19 pandemic|date|editlink=|ref=no}}, there
{{clear}}
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<!-- <ref name="FrutosR2021Mar">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Frutos R, Gavotte L, Devaux CA |title=Understanding the origin of COVID-19 requires to change the paradigm on zoonotic emergence from the spillover model to the viral circulation model |journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution |page=104812 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33744401 |pmc=7969828 |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104812 |volume=95}}</ref> -->
<ref name="GiovanettiM2020Nov">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Giovanetti M, Benedetti F, Campisi G, Ciccozzi A, Fabris S, Ceccarelli G, Tambone V, Caruso A, Angeletti S, Zella D, Ciccozzi M
<ref name="HuB2020Oct">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL |title=Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=141–154 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33024307 |pmc=7537588 |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-00459-7}}</ref>
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<!-- <ref name="IJID-interm-host">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wu D, Wu T, Liu Q, Yang Z |title=The SARS-CoV-2 outbreak: What we know |journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=94 |pages=44–48 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32171952 |pmc=7102543 |doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.004 |url=https://www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(20)30123-5/fulltext | access-date = 16 April 2020 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200409201324/https://www.ijidonline.com/article/S1201-9712(20%2930123-5/fulltext | archive-date = 9 April 2020}}</ref> -->
<ref name="LancetBinding">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N, Bi Y, Ma X, Zhan F, Wang L, Hu T, Zhou H, Hu Z, Zhou W, Zhao L, Chen J, Meng Y, Wang J, Lin Y, Yuan J, Xie Z, Ma J, Liu WJ, Wang D, Xu W, Holmes EC, Gao GF, Wu G, Chen W, Shi W, Tan W
<ref name="LancetCharacteristics">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, Xia J, Yu T, Zhang X, Zhang L
<ref name="LancetClinical">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B
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<ref name="nature feb2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Cyranoski D |title=Mystery deepens over animal source of coronavirus |journal=Nature |volume=579 |issue=7797 |pages=18–19 |date=March 2020 |pmid=32127703 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00548-w |bibcode=2020Natur.579...18C | doi-access = free}}</ref>
<ref name="NatureZhou">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si HR, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang CL, Chen HD, Chen J, Luo Y, Guo H, Jiang RD, Liu MQ, Chen Y, Shen XR, Wang X, Zheng XS, Zhao K, Chen QJ, Deng F, Liu LL, Yan B, Zhan FX, Wang YY, Xiao GF, Shi ZL
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<ref name="NCBI-Bat">{{#invoke:cite journal ||date=15 February 2020 |title=Bat SARS-like coronavirus isolate bat-SL-CoVZC45, complete genome |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MG772933 |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI)
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<ref name="NCBI-Bat2">{{#invoke:cite journal ||date=15 February 2020 |title=Bat SARS-like coronavirus isolate bat-SL-CoVZXC21, complete genome |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MG772934 |access-date=15 February 2020 |website=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI)
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<ref name="RobsonF2020Aug">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Robson F, Khan KS, Le TK, Paris C, Demirbag S, Barfuss P, Rocchi P, Ng WL
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<ref name="XiaoK2020July">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Xiao K, Zhai J, Feng Y, Zhou N, Zhang X, Zou JJ, Li N, Guo Y, Li X, Shen X, Zhang Z, Shu F, Huang W, Li Y, Zhang Z, Chen RA, Wu YJ, Peng SM, Huang M, Xie WJ, Cai QH, Hou FH, Chen W, Xiao L, Shen Y
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<ref name="ZhouCellJune2021">{{#invoke:cite journal || vauthors = Zhou H, Ji J, Chen X, Bi Y, Li J, Wang Q, Hu T, Song H, Zhao R, Chen Y, Cui M, Zhang Y, Hughes AC, Holmes EC, Shi W
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<section end=LDRs for Reservoir and origin />
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<!-- Refs used by everything else (except section Reservoir and origin); further division coming. -->
<ref name="Alm2020Aug">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Alm E, Broberg EK, Connor T, Hodcroft EB, Komissarov AB, Maurer-Stroh S, Melidou A, Neher RA, O'Toole Á, Pereyaslov D
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<ref name="Chan24Jan2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CC, Poon RW, Tsoi HW, Lo SK, Chan KH, Poon VK, Chan WM, Ip JD, Cai JP, Cheng VC, Chen H, Hui CK, Yuen KY
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<ref name="COVIDname date">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it |title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) and the virus that causes it |publisher=World Health Organization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228035651/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it |archive-date=28 February 2020 |access-date=14 December 2020 |quote=ICTV announced "severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)" as the name of the new virus on 11 February 2020. This name was chosen because the virus is genetically related to the coronavirus responsible for the SARS outbreak of 2003. While related, the two viruses are different.}}</ref>
<ref name="COVIDname public">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it |title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) and the virus that causes it |publisher=World Health Organization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228035651/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it |archive-date=28 February 2020 |access-date=14 December 2020 |quote=From a risk communications perspective, using the name SARS can have unintended consequences in terms of creating unnecessary fear for some populations.{{nbsp}}... For that reason and others, WHO has begun referring to the virus as "the virus responsible for COVID-19" or "the COVID-19 virus" when communicating with the public. Neither of these designations {{sic|is|nolink=y}} intended as replacements for the official name of the virus as agreed by the ICTV.
<ref name="CuervoNZ2020Nov">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zamorano Cuervo N, Grandvaux N |title=ACE2: Evidence of role as entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2 and implications in comorbidities |journal=eLife |volume=9 |issue= |date=November 2020 |pmid=33164751 |pmc=7652413 |doi=10.7554/eLife.61390|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name= "deOliveira" >{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=de Oliveira PM, Mesquita LC, Gkantonas S, Giusti A, Mastorakos E |title=Evolution of spray and aerosol from respiratory releases: theoretical estimates for insight on viral transmission |journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=477 |issue=2245 |page=20200584 |date=January 2021 |pmid=33633490 |pmc=7897643 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2020.0584 |s2cid=231643585 | doi-access = free |bibcode=2021RSPSA.47700584D}}</ref>
<ref name="econ-anatomy-killer">{{#invoke:Cite magazine ||date=12 March 2020 |title=Anatomy of a Killer: Understanding SARS-CoV-2 and the drugs that might lessen its power |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/03/12/understanding-sars-cov-2-and-the-drugs-that-might-lessen-its-power |magazine=[[The Economist]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314010231/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/03/12/understanding-sars-cov-2-and-the-drugs-that-might-lessen-its-power |archive-date=14 March 2020 |access-date=14 March 2020 |url-status=live
<ref name="EconomistSinophobia">{{#invoke:cite news ||author= |title=The coronavirus spreads racism against—and among—ethnic Chinese |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 February 2020|access-date= 17 February 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200217223902/https://www.economist.com/china/2020/02/17/the-coronavirus-spreads-racism-against-and-among-ethnic-chinese|archive-date= 17 February 2020|url-status= live
<ref name="ElSahly">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=((El Sahly HM)) |title=Genomic Characterization of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus |url=https://www.jwatch.org/na50823/2020/02/06/genomic-characterization-2019-novel-coronavirus |url-status=live |journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217184052/https://www.jwatch.org/na50823/2020/02/06/genomic-characterization-2019-novel-coronavirus |archive-date=17 February 2020 |access-date=9 February 2020
<ref name="GuardianLeap">{{#invoke:cite news ||url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/30/coronavirus-deaths-leap-in-china-as-countries-struggle-to-evacuate-citizens |title=Coronavirus deaths leap in China as countries struggle to evacuate citizens |date=30 January 2020 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=10 March 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206150542/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/30/coronavirus-deaths-leap-in-china-as-countries-struggle-to-evacuate-citizens |archive-date=6 February 2020 |vauthors=Boseley S, McCurry J}}</ref>
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<ref name="GZM-20200220">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://gizmodo.com/scientists-create-atomic-level-image-of-the-new-coronav-1841795715 |title=Scientists Create Atomic-Level Image of the New Coronavirus's Potential Achilles Heel |date=19 February 2020 |website=[[Gizmodo]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308070019/https://gizmodo.com/scientists-create-atomic-level-image-of-the-new-coronav-1841795715 |archive-date=8 March 2020 |access-date=13 March 2020 |vauthors=Mandelbaum RF}}</ref>
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<ref name="HoffmanCell">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, Müller MA, Drosten C, Pöhlmann S
<ref name="Hou2020">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Hou YJ, Okuda K, Edwards CE, Martinez DR, Asakura T, Dinnon KH, Kato T, Lee RE, Yount BL, Mascenik TM, Chen G, Olivier KN, Ghio A, Tse LV, Leist SR, Gralinski LE, Schäfer A, Dang H, Gilmore R, Nakano S, Sun L, Fulcher ML, Livraghi-Butrico A, Nicely NI, Cameron M, Cameron C, Kelvin DJ, de Silva A, Margolis DM, Markmann A, Bartelt L, Zumwalt R, Martinez FJ, Salvatore SP, Borczuk A, Tata PR, Sontake V, Kimple A, Jaspers I, O'Neal WK, Randell SH, Boucher RC, Baric RS
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<ref name="LancetLoad">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=To KK, Tsang OT, Leung WS, Tam AR, Wu TC, Lung DC, Yip CC, Cai JP, Chan JM, Chik TS, Lau DP, Choi CY, Chen LL, Chan WM, Chan KH, Ip JD, Ng AC, Poon RW, Luo CT, Cheng VC, Chan JF, Hung IF, Chen Z, Chen H, Yuen KY
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<ref name= "LivescienceTalkingWorse">{{#invoke:cite web ||vauthors=Rettner R |date=21 January 2021 |title=Talking is worse than coughing for spreading COVID-19 indoors |url=https://www.livescience.com/covid-19-spread-talking-coughing-indoors.html|access-date=10 October 2022 |website=Live Science |quote=In one modeled scenario, the researchers found that after a short cough, the number of infectious particles in the air would quickly fall after 1 to 7 minutes; in contrast, after speaking for 30 seconds, only after 30 minutes would the number of infectious particles fall to similar levels; and a high number of particles were still suspended after one hour. In other words, a dose of virus particles capable of causing an infection would linger in the air much longer after speech than a cough. (In this modeled scenario, the same number of droplets were admitted during a 0.5-second cough as during the course of 30 seconds of speech.)}}</ref>
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<ref name="NaturePeakLoad">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wölfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Zange S, Müller MA, Niemeyer D, Jones TC, Vollmar P, Rothe C, Hoelscher M, Bleicker T, Brünink S, Schneider J, Ehmann R, Zwirglmaier K, Drosten C, Wendtner C
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<ref name="Rocklov">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Rocklöv J, Sjödin H, Wilder-Smith A |title=COVID-19 outbreak on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: estimating the epidemic potential and effectiveness of public health countermeasures |journal=Journal of Travel Medicine |volume=27 |issue=3 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32109273 |pmc=7107563 |doi=10.1093/jtm/taaa030}}</ref>
<ref name="SCI-20200219">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh CL, Abiona O, Graham BS, McLellan JS
<ref name="SCI-20201123">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Popa A, Genger JW, Nicholson MD, Penz T, Schmid D, Aberle SW, Agerer B, Lercher A, Endler L, Colaço H, Smyth M, Schuster M, Grau ML, Martínez-Jiménez F, Pich O, Borena W, Pawelka E, Keszei Z, Senekowitsch M, Laine J, Aberle JH, Redlberger-Fritz M, Karolyi M, Zoufaly A, Maritschnik S, Borkovec M, Hufnagl P, Nairz M, Weiss G, Wolfinger MT, von Laer D, Superti-Furga G, Lopez-Bigas N, Puchhammer-Stöckl E, Allerberger F, Michor F, Bock C, Bergthaler A
<ref name="ScienceFlawed">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Kupferschmidt K |date=February 2020 |title=Study claiming new coronavirus can be transmitted by people without symptoms was flawed |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |doi=10.1126/science.abb1524|s2cid=214094598 }}</ref>
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<ref name="ScienceRapid">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Li R, Pei S, Chen B, Song Y, Zhang T, Yang W, Shaman J |title=Substantial undocumented infection facilitates the rapid dissemination of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) |journal=Science |volume=368 |issue=6490 |pages=489–493 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32179701 |pmc=7164387 |doi=10.1126/science.abb3221 |bibcode=2020Sci...368..489L}}</ref>
<ref name="SCLSModeling">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Xu X, Chen P, Wang J, Feng J, Zhou H, Li X, Zhong W, Hao P
<ref name="Semen">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Li D, Jin M, Bao P, Zhao W, Zhang S |title=Clinical Characteristics and Results of Semen Tests Among Men With Coronavirus Disease 2019 |journal=JAMA Network Open |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e208292 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32379329 |pmc=7206502 |doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.8292}}</ref>
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<ref name="Thorax">''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', Thursday 28 May 2020, page 2 column 1, which refers to the medical journal [[Thorax (journal)|''Thorax'']]; ''Thorax'' May 2020 article [https://thorax.bmj.com/content/early/2020/05/27/thoraxjnl-2020-215091 ''COVID-19: in the footsteps of Ernest Shackleton''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530144907/https://thorax.bmj.com/content/early/2020/05/27/thoraxjnl-2020-215091 |date=30 May 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="till-gen">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Tillett RL, Sevinsky JR, Hartley PD, Kerwin H, Crawford N, Gorzalski A, Laverdure C, Verma SC, Rossetto CC, Jackson D, Farrell MJ, Van Hooser S, Pandori M
<ref name="TodayNameMixup">{{#invoke:cite news ||title=Novel coronavirus named 'Covid-19': WHO |url=https://www.todayonline.com/world/wuhan-novel-coronavirus-named-covid-19-who |access-date=11 February 2020 |publisher=TODAYonline
<ref name="to-phyl">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=To KK, Hung IF, Ip JD, Chu AW, Chan WM, Tam AR, Fong CH, Yuan S, Tsoi HW, Ng AC, Lee LL, Wan P, Tso E, To WK, Tsang D, Chan KH, Huang JD, Kok KH, Cheng VC, Yuen KY
<ref name="USDAtiger">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/newsroom/news/sa_by_date/sa-2020/ny-zoo-covid-19 |title=USDA Statement on the Confirmation of COVID-19 in a Tiger in New York |date=5 April 2020 |website=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |url-status=live |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415155712/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/newsroom/news/sa_by_date/sa-2020/ny-zoo-covid-19 |archive-date=15 April 2020}}</ref>
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<ref name="WHOnamingguidelines">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf |title=World Health Organization Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases |date=May 2015 |website=WHO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212201906/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf|archive-date=12 February 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="WHOPandemic">{{#invoke:Cite press release ||title=WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020 |date=11 March 2020 |url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020 |access-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311212521/https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020 |archive-date=11 March 2020 |website=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |url-status=live
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<ref name="WHO-SR10">{{#invoke:cite report ||title=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): situation report, 10 |date=30 January 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl-access=free |vauthors=((World Health Organization)) |hdl=10665/330775
<ref name="WHO-SR12">{{#invoke:cite report ||title=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): situation report, 12 |date=1 February 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl-access=free |vauthors=((World Health Organization)) |hdl=10665/330777
<ref name="WHO-SR22">{{#invoke:cite report ||title=Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): situation report, 22 |date=11 February 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl-access=free |hdl=10665/330991
<ref name="WHO-Workplace">{{#invoke:cite web ||url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/getting-workplace-ready-for-covid-19.pdf |title=Getting your workplace ready for COVID-19 |date=27 February 2020 |website=World Health Organization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302092018/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/getting-workplace-ready-for-covid-19.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2020 |access-date=3 March 2020
<ref name="Wong2019">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wong AC, Li X, Lau SK, Woo PC |title=Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses |journal=Viruses |volume=11 |issue=2 |page=174 |date=February 2019 |pmid=30791586 |pmc=6409556 |doi=10.3390/v11020174
<ref name="WuStructure">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wu C, Liu Y, Yang Y, Zhang P, Zhong W, Wang Y, Wang Q, Xu Y, Li M, Li X, Zheng M, Chen L, Li H
<ref name="Zoonotic">{{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Wong G, Bi YH, Wang QH, Chen XW, Zhang ZG, Yao YG |title=Zoonotic origins of human coronavirus 2019 (HCoV-19 / SARS-CoV-2): why is this work important? |journal=Zoological Research |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=213–219 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32314559 |pmc=7231470 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.031}}</ref>
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== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Bar-On YM, Flamholz A, Phillips R, Milo R |title=SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) by the numbers |journal=eLife |volume=9 |date=April 2020 |pmid=32228860 |pmc=7224694 |doi=10.7554/eLife.57309 |ref=none |bibcode=2020arXiv200312886B |arxiv=2003.12886|doi-access=free}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Brüssow H |title=The Novel Coronavirus - A Snapshot of Current Knowledge |journal=Microbial Biotechnology |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=607–612 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32144890 |pmc=7111068 |doi=10.1111/1751-7915.13557 |ref=none}}
* {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn S, Di Napoli R |title=Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19) |journal=StatPearls |date=January 2020 |pmid=32150360 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554776/ |ref=none | access-date = 4 April 2020 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200406135818/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554776/ | archive-date = 6 April 2020}}
* {{#invoke:cite report ||title=Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in suspected human cases |date=2 March 2020 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl-access=free |hdl=10665/331329
* {{#invoke:cite journal ||vauthors=Zoumpourlis V, Goulielmaki M, Rizos E, Baliou S, Spandidos DA |title=[Comment] The COVID‑19 pandemic as a scientific and social challenge in the 21st century |journal=Molecular Medicine Reports |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=3035–3048 |date=October 2020 |pmid=32945405 |pmc=7453598 |doi=10.3892/mmr.2020.11393 |type=Review}}
{{Refend}}
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