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{{Short description|Abugida script for the Cambodian (Khmer) language}}{{Infobox Writing system
|name
|languages=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] <br> [[Tamil language|Tamil]] <br>[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]<br>[[Pali language|Pali]]<br>[[Jarai language|Jarai]]
|type=[[Abugida]]
|time= ca. 611 – present<ref>{{cite book| title=South-East Asia: languages and literatures : a select guide | first=Patricia | last=Herbert |author2=Anthony Crothers Milner | pages=51–52 | year= 1989| ISBN=0-8248-1267-0| publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}</ref>
|fam1=[[Proto-Sinaitic alphabet]]
|fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam3=[[Aramaic alphabet]]
|fam4=[[Brahmi alphabet]]
|fam5=[[Tamil-Brahmi]]
|
|sisters=[[Mon script|Mon]] <br />[[Old Kawi]]
|children=[[Thai alphabet|Thai]] <br />[[Lao script|Lao]]
|unicode = {{ublist |class=nowrap |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1780.pdf U+1780–U+17FF] {{smaller|Khmer}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U19E0.pdf U+19E0–U+19FF] {{smaller|Khmer Symbols}}}}
|iso15924=Khmr
|sample
}}
{{Contains special characters|Khmer}}
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{{alphabet}}
The '''Khmer script''' ({{lang-km|អក្សរខ្មែរ
The Khmer script was adapted from the [[Pallava script]], which ultimately descended from the [[Tamil-Brahmi]] script,<ref>Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography, R. Malatesha Joshi, Catherine McBride(2019), p.28</ref> which was used in southern India and South East Asia during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.<ref>Punnee Soonthornpoct: ''From Freedom to Hell: A History of Foreign Interventions in Cambodian Politics And Wars.'' Page 29. Vantage Press.</ref> The oldest dated inscription in Khmer was found at [[Angkor Borei District]] in [[Takéo Province]] south of Phnom Penh and dates from 611.<ref>Russell R. Ross: ''Cambodia: A Country Study''. Page 112. Library of Congress, USA, Federal Research Division, 1990.</ref> The modern Khmer script differs somewhat from precedent forms seen on the inscriptions of the ruins of [[Angkor]]. The [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] and [[Lao script|Lao]] scripts are descendants of an older form of the Khmer script.
[[File:AncientKhmerScript.jpg|thumb|Ancient Khmer script engraved on stone.]]
Khmer is written from [[left to right]]. Words within the same sentence or phrase are generally run together with no [[space (punctuation)|space]]s between them. [[Consonant cluster]]s within a word are "stacked", with the second (and occasionally third) consonant being written in reduced form under the main consonant. Originally there were 35 consonant characters, but modern Khmer uses only 33. Each character represents a consonant sound together with an [[inherent vowel]], either ''â'' or ''ô''; in many cases, in the absence of another vowel mark, the inherent vowel is to be pronounced after the consonant.
There are some independent [[vowel]] characters, but vowel sounds are more commonly represented as dependent vowels, additional marks accompanying a consonant character, and indicating what vowel sound is to be pronounced after that consonant (or consonant cluster). Most dependent vowels have two different pronunciations, depending in most cases on the inherent vowel of the consonant to which they are added. There are also a number of [[diacritic]]s used to indicate further modifications in pronunciation. The script also includes its own [[numerical digit|numerals]] and [[punctuation mark]]s.
== Consonants ==
There are 35 Khmer [[consonant]] symbols, although modern Khmer only uses 33, two having become obsolete. Each consonant has an [[inherent vowel]]: ''â'' {{IPA|/ɑː/}} or ''ô'' {{IPA|/ɔː/}}; equivalently, each consonant is said to belong to the ''a''-series or ''o''-series. A consonant's series determines the pronunciation of the [[#Dependent vowels|dependent vowel]] symbols which may be attached to it, and in some positions the sound of the inherent vowel is itself pronounced. The two series originally represented [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] and [[voiced consonant|voiced]] consonants respectively (and are still referred to as such in Khmer); [[sound change]]s during the [[Middle Khmer]] period affected vowels following voiceless consonants, and these changes were preserved even though the distinctive voicing was lost (see [[Khmer language#Phonation and tone|phonation in Khmer]]).
Each consonant, with one exception, also has a subscript form. These may also be called "sub-consonants"; the Khmer phrase is {{lang|km|ជើងអក្សរ}} ''{{transl|km|cheung âksâr}}'', meaning "foot of a letter". Most subscript consonants resemble the corresponding consonant symbol, but in a smaller and possibly simplified form, although in a few cases there is no obvious resemblance. Most subscript consonants are written directly below other consonants, although subscript ''{{transl|km|r}}'' appears to the left, while a few others have ascending elements which appear to the right. Subscripts are used in writing [[consonant cluster]]s (consonants pronounced consecutively in a word with no vowel sound between them). Clusters in Khmer normally consist of two consonants, although occasionally in the middle of a word there will be three. The first consonant in a cluster is written using the main consonant symbol, with the second (and third, if present) attached to it in subscript form. Subscripts were previously also used to write final consonants; in modern Khmer this may be done, optionally, in some words ending ''-ng'' or ''-y'', such as {{lang|km|ឲ្យ}} ''{{transl|km|aôy}}'' ("give").
The consonants and their subscript forms are listed in the following table. Usual phonetic values are given using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA); variations are described below the table. The sound system is described in detail at [[Khmer phonology]]. The spoken [[letter name|name]] of each consonant letter is its value together with its inherent vowel. Transliterations are given using the transcription system of the ''Geographic Department of the Cambodian Ministry of Land Management and Urban Planning'' used by the Cambodian government and the [[UNGEGN]] system;<ref>{{Cite web
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan="2" | Consonant
! rowspan="2" | Subscript <br/>form
! colspan="
! colspan="
|-
! IPA
!GD
! UN
! IPA
! UN
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ក}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ក}}</big>
| {{IPA|[kɑː]}}
|''ka''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| ''{{transl|km|k}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ខ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ខ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[kʰɑː]}}
|''kha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|kh}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|គ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្គ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[kɔː]}}
|''ko''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| ''{{transl|km|k}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឃ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឃ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[kʰɔː]}}
|''kho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|kh}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ង}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ង}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ŋɔː]}}
|''ngo''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|ng}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ច}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ច}}</big>
| {{IPA|[cɑː]}}
|''cha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[c]}}
| ''{{transl|km|ch}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឆ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឆ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[cʰɑː]}}
|''chha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[cʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|chh}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ជ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ជ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[cɔː]}}
|''cho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[c]}}
| ''{{transl|km|ch}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឈ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឈ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[cʰɔː]}}
|''chho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[cʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|chh}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ញ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ញ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ɲɔː]}}
|''nho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|nh}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ដ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ដ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ɗɑː]}}
|''da''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ɗ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|d}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឋ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឋ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tʰɑː]}}
|''tha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|th}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឌ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឌ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ɗɔː]}}
|''do''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ɗ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|d}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឍ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ឍ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tʰɔː]}}
|''tho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|th}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ណ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ណ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[nɑː]}}
|''na''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[n]}}
| ''{{transl|km|n}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ត}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ត}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tɑː]}}
|''ta''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| ''{{transl|km|t}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ថ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ថ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tʰɑː]}}
|''tha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|th}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ទ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ទ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tɔː]}}
|''to''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| ''{{transl|km|t}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ធ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ធ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[tʰɔː]}}
|''tho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|th}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ន}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ន}}</big>
| {{IPA|[nɔː]}}
|''no''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[n]}}
| ''{{transl|km|n}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ប}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ប}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ɓɑː]}}
|''ba''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ɓ], [p]}}
| ''{{transl|km|b, p}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ផ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ផ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[pʰɑː]}}
|''pha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|ph}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ព}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ព}}</big>
| {{IPA|[pɔː]}}
|''po''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| ''{{transl|km|p}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ភ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ភ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[pʰɔː]}}
|''pho''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|ph}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ម}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ម}}</big>
| {{IPA|[mɔː]}}
|''mo''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[m]}}
| ''{{transl|km|m}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|យ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្យ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[jɔː]}}
|''yo''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[j]}}
| ''{{transl|km|y}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|រ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្រ}}</big>
| {{
|''ro''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[r]}}
| ''{{transl|km|r}}''
|-
|<big> {{lang|km|ល}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ល}}</big>
| {{IPA|[lɔː]}}
|''lo''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[l]}}
| ''{{transl|km|l}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|វ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្វ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ʋɔː]}}
|''vo''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|v}}''
|-
| bgcolor="#E5E5E5" | <big>{{lang|km|ឝ}}</big>
| bgcolor="#E5E5E5" | <big>{{lang|km|្ឝ}}</big>
| colspan="
Used only for [[Pali]]/[[Sanskrit]] transliteration<ref name="KhUnicodeChart">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1780.pdf|title=Unicode 12.1 Character Code Charts |-
| bgcolor="#E5E5E5" | <big>{{lang|km|ឞ}}</big>
| bgcolor="#E5E5E5" | <big>{{lang|km|្ឞ}}</big>
| colspan="
Used only for [[Pali]]/[[Sanskrit]] transliteration<ref name="KhUnicodeChart" /> |-
| <big>{{lang|km|ស}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ស}}</big>
| {{IPA|[sɑː]}}
|''sa''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| ''{{transl|km|s}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្ហ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[hɑː]}}
|''ha''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[h]}}
| ''{{transl|km|h}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឡ}}</big>
| none<ref>The letter {{lang|km|ឡ}} ''{{transl|km|lâ}}'' has no subscript form in standard orthography, but some fonts include one (្ឡ), as a form to be rendered if the character appears after the Khmer subscripting character (see under [[#Unicode|Unicode]]).</ref>
| {{IPA|[lɑː]}}
|''la''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[l]}}
| ''{{transl|km|l}}''
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អ}}</big>
| <big>{{lang|km|្អ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ʔɑː]}}
|''a''
| ''{{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[ʔ]}}
| ''{{transl|km|’}}''
|}
The letter
The letter {{lang|km|ញ}} ''nhô'' is written without the lower curve when a subscript is added. When it is subscripted to itself, the subscript is a smaller form of the entire letter: {{lang|km|ញ្ញ}} ''-nhnh-''.
Note that {{lang|km|ដ}} ''{{transl|km|dâ}}'' and {{lang|km|ត}} ''{{transl|km|tâ}}'' have the same subscript form. In initial clusters this subscript is always pronounced {{IPA|[
The series {{lang|km|ដ}} ''{{transl|km|dâ}}'', {{lang|km|ឋ}} ''{{transl|km|thâ}}'', {{lang|km|ឌ}} ''{{transl|km|dô}}'', {{lang|km|ឍ}} ''{{transl|km|thô}}'', {{lang|km|ណ}} ''{{transl|km|nâ}}'' originally represented [[retroflex consonant]]s in the Indic parent scripts. The second, third and fourth of these are rare, and occur only for etymological reasons in a few Pali and Sanskrit loanwords. Because the sound /n/ is common, and often grammatically productive, in Mon-Khmer languages, the fifth of this group, {{lang|km|ណ}}, was adapted as an a-series counterpart of {{lang|km|ន}} ''{{transl|km|nô}}'' for convenience (all other nasal consonants are o-series).
Line 453 ⟶ 340:
The letter {{lang|km|ប}} ''bâ'' represents {{IPA|[ɓ]}} only before a vowel. When final or followed by a subscript consonant, it is pronounced {{IPA|[p]}} (and in the case where it is followed by a subscript consonant, it is also romanized as ''p'' in the UN system). For modification to ''p'' by means of a diacritic, see [[#Supplementary consonants|Supplementary consonants]]. The letter, which represented /p/ in Indic scripts, also often maintains the {{IPA|[p]}} sound in certain words borrowed from Sanskrit and Pali.
The letters {{lang|km|ដ}} ''dâ'' and {{lang|km|ឌ}} ''dô'' are pronounced {{IPA|[t]}} when final. The letter {{lang|km|ត}} ''tâ'' is pronounced {{IPA|[
In final position, letters representing a {{IPA|[k]}} sound (''k-'', ''kh-'') are pronounced as a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} after the vowels {{IPA|[ɑː]}}, {{IPA|[aː]}}, {{IPA|[iə]}}, {{IPA|[ɨə]}}, {{IPA|[uə]}}, {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, {{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[ĕə]}}, {{IPA|[ŭə]}}. The letter {{lang|km|រ}} ''{{transl|km|rô}}'' is silent when final (in most dialects; see [[Northern Khmer language|Northern Khmer]]). The letter {{lang|km|ស}} ''{{transl|km|sâ}}'' when final is pronounced {{IPA|/h/}} (which in this position approaches {{IPA|[ç]}}).
=== Supplementary consonants ===
The Khmer writing system includes supplementary consonants, used in certain [[loanword]]s, particularly from [[French language|French]] and [[Thai language|Thai]]. These mostly represent sounds which do not occur in native words, or for which the native letters are restricted to one of the two vowel series. Most of them are [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s, formed by stacking a subscript under the letter {{lang|km|ហ}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan="2" | Supplementary <br/>consonant
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="
! colspan="
! rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! IPA
!GD
! UN{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
! IPA
!GD
! UN{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្គ}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''kô''
| {{IPA|[ɡɑː]}}
|''ga''
| {{
| {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|
| {{transl|km|g}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្គាស}}, {{IPA|[ɡas]}} ('gas')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្គ៊}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''kô'' + diacritic
| {{IPA|[ɡɔː]}}
|''go''
| {{
| {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|
| {{transl|km|g}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្គ៊ារ}}, {{IPA|[train station]}} ('train station')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្ន}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''nô''
| {{IPA|[nɑː]}}
|''na''
| {{
| {{IPA|[n]}}
|
| {{transl|km|n}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្នាំង}} or {{lang|km|ហ្ន័ង}}, {{IPA|[naŋ]}} ('shadow play' from Thai: {{lang|th|หนัง}})
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ប៉}}</big>
| ''bâ'' + diacritic
| {{IPA|[pɑː]}}
|''pa''
| {{transl|km|
| {{IPA|[p]}}
|
| {{transl|km|p}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ប៉ាក់}}, {{IPA|[pak]}} (to 'embroider'), {{lang|km|ប៉័ង}}, {{IPA|[paŋ]}} ('bread')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្ម}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''mô''
| {{IPA|[mɑː]}}
|''ma''
| {{
| {{IPA|[m]}}
|
| {{transl|km|m}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|គ្រូហ្ម}}, {{IPA|[kruː mɑː]}} ('shaman', from Thai: {{lang|th|หมอ}})
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្ល}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''lô''
| {{IPA|[lɑː]}}
|''la''
| {{
| {{IPA|[l]}}
|
| {{transl|km|l}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្លួង}}, {{IPA|[luəŋ]}} ('king', from Thai: {{lang|th|หลวง}})
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្វ}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''vô''
| {{IPA|[fɑː], [ʋɑː]}}
|''fa''
| {{
| {{IPA|[f], [ʋ]}}
|
| {{transl|km|f, v}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Pronounced {{IPA|[ʋ]}} in {{lang|km|ហ្វង់}}, {{IPA|[ʋɑŋ]}} ('clear') and {{IPA|[f]}} in {{lang|km|កាហ្វេ}}, {{IPA|[kaafeɛ]}} ('coffee')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្វ៊}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''vô'' + diacritic
| {{IPA|[fɔː], [ʋɔː]}}
|''fo''
| {{
| {{IPA|[f], [ʋ]}}
|
| {{transl|km|f, v}}
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្វ៊ីល}}, {{IPA|[fiːl]}} ('film')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្ស}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''sâ''
| {{
|
| {{
| {{IPA|[
|
| {{
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្សាស}}, {{IPA|[ʒas]}} ('jazz')
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ហ្ស៊}}</big>
| ''hâ'' + ''sâ'' + diacritic
| {{
|''žo, zo''
| {{
| {{IPA|[
|
| {{
| style="text-align:left;" | Example: {{lang|km|ហ្ស៊ីប}}, {{IPA|[ʒiːp]}} ('jeep')
|}
== Dependent vowels ==
Most Khmer vowel sounds are written using dependent, or [[diacritic]]al, vowel symbols, known in Khmer as {{lang|km|ស្រៈនិស្ស័យ}} ''{{transl|km|srăk
In determining the inherent vowel of a consonant cluster (i.e. how a following dependent vowel will be pronounced), [[Stop consonant|stops]] and [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] are dominant over [[sonorant]]s. For any consonant cluster including a combination of these sounds, a following dependent vowel is pronounced according to the dominant consonant, regardless of its position in the cluster. When both members of a cluster are dominant, the subscript consonant determines the pronunciation of a following dependent vowel. A non-dominant consonant (and in some words also {{lang|km|
The dependent vowels are listed below, in conventional form with a dotted circle as a dummy consonant symbol, and in combination with the a-series letter {{lang|km|អ}} ''’â''. The IPA values given are representative of dialects from the northwest and central plains regions, specifically from the [[Battambang Province|Battambang]] area, upon which [[Standard language|Standard]] Khmer is based. Vowel pronunciation varies widely in other dialects such as [[Northern Khmer language|Northern Khmer]], where diphthongs are leveled, and [[Western Khmer dialect|Western Khmer]], in which [[breathy voice]] and [[modal voice]] [[phonation]]s are still contrastive.
Line 611 ⟶ 472:
! rowspan="2" | Dependent<br>vowel
! rowspan="2" | Example
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2"
! colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! a-series
! o-series
!
!
! a-series
! o-series
Line 625 ⟶ 486:
| (none)
| <big>{{lang|km|អ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ɑː]}}
| {{IPA|[ɔː]}}
|''a''
Line 636 ⟶ 497:
| <big>{{lang|km|អា}}</big>
| {{IPA|[aː]}}
| {{IPA|[iːə]}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoca0000jaco|url-access=registration|title=Introduction to Cambodian|last=Jacob|first=Judith M.|date=1968|publisher=London ; Bombay [etc.] :
|''a''
|''ea''
Line 790 ⟶ 651:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan="2" | Combination
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2"
! colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! a-series
! o-series
!
!
! a-series
! o-series
Line 805 ⟶ 666:
| {{IPA|[om]}}
| {{IPA|[um]}}
|
|
| ''{{transl|km|om}}''
| ''{{transl|km|ŭm}}''
Line 818 ⟶ 679:
| ''{{transl|km|âm}}''
| ''{{transl|km|um}}''
| style="text-align:left;" | The word {{lang|km|ធំ}}
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អាំ}}</big>
Line 827 ⟶ 688:
| ''{{transl|km|ăm}}''
| ''{{transl|km|ŏâm}}''
| style="text-align:left;" | When followed by {{lang|km|ង}}
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អះ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[
| {{IPA|[
|''ah''
|''eah''
Line 839 ⟶ 700:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អិះ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[
| {{IPA|[
|''eh''
|''is''
Line 848 ⟶ 709:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អុះ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[
| {{IPA|[
|''oh''
|''uh''
Line 857 ⟶ 718:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អេះ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[
| {{IPA|[
| colspan="2" |''eh''
| colspan="2" | ''{{transl|km|éh}}''
Line 864 ⟶ 725:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|អោះ}}</big>
| {{IPA|[
| {{IPA|[
|''aoh''
|''uoh''
| ''{{transl|km|aôh}}''
| ''{{transl|km|ŏăh}}''
| style="text-align:left;" | The word {{lang|km|នោះ}}
|}
Line 877 ⟶ 738:
Other rarer configurations with the ''{{transl|km|reăhmŭkh}}'' are {{lang|km|អើះ}} (or {{lang|km|អឹះ}}), pronounced {{IPA|[əh]}}, and {{lang|km|អែះ}}, pronounced {{IPA|[eh]}}. The word {{lang|km|ចា៎ះ}} "yes" (used by women) is pronounced [caː] and rarely {{IPA|[caːh]}}.
The ''
*in a syllable with inherent ''â'', the vowel is shortened to {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, UN transcription ''á''
*in a syllable with inherent ''ô'', the vowel is modified to {{IPA|[u]}} before a final [[labial consonant|labial]], otherwise usually to {{IPA|[ŏə]}}; UN transcription ''ó''
Line 885 ⟶ 746:
The ''{{transl|km|sanhyoŭk sannha}}'' is equivalent to the ''a'' dependent vowel with the ''{{transl|km|bântăk}}''. However, its o-series pronunciation becomes {{IPA|[ɨ]}} before final ''y'', and {{IPA|[ɔə]}} before final (silent) ''r''.
The ''
===Consonants with no dependent vowel===
There are three environments where a consonant may appear without a dependent vowel. The rules governing the inherent vowel differ for all three environments. Consonants may be written with no dependent vowel as an initial consonant of a [[Khmer language#Stress|weak syllable]], an initial consonant of a strong syllable or as the final letter of a written word.
In careful speech, initial consonants without a dependent vowel in weak initial syllables are pronounced with their inherent vowel shortened as if modified by the ''
Initial consonants in strong syllables without written vowels are pronounced with their inherent vowels. The word {{lang|km|ចង}} ("to tie") is pronounced {{IPA|
Consonants written as the final letter of a word usually represent a word-final sound and are pronounced without any following vowel and, in the case of stops, with [[no audible release]] as in the examples above. However, in some words adopted from [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]], what would appear to be a final consonant under normal rules can actually be the initial consonant of a following syllable and pronounced with a short vowel as if followed by {{lang|km|ាក់}}. For example, according to rules for native Khmer words, {{lang|km|សុភ}} ("good", "clean", "beautiful") would appear to be a single syllable, but, being derived from Pali ''subha'', it is pronounced {{IPA|
===Ligatures===
Line 901 ⟶ 762:
Some more examples of ligatured symbols follow:
:
:
:
:
:
==Independent vowels==
Independent vowels are non-diacritical vowel characters that stand alone (i.e. without being attached to a consonant symbol). In Khmer they are called {{lang|km|ស្រៈពេញតួ}} ''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! Independent<br />vowel
! IPA
!GD
! UN
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ឥ}}</big>
Line 989 ⟶ 850:
|}
Independent vowel letters are named similarly to the dependent vowels, with the word {{lang|km|ស្រៈ}} ''
==Diacritics==
The Khmer writing system contains several [[diacritic]]s ({{lang
{| class="wikitable"
Line 1,008 ⟶ 869:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ៈ}}</big>
| {{lang|km|យុគលពិន្ទុ}} ''{{transl|km|
| A "pair of dots", a fairly recently introduced diacritic, written after a consonant to indicate that it is to be followed by a short vowel and a glottal stop. See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]].
|-
Line 1,016 ⟶ 877:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៊}}</big>
| {{lang|km|
| A wavy line, written above a consonant, used to convert some a-series consonants ({{lang|km|ស ហ ប អ}}) to o-series.
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|ុ}}</big>
| {{lang|km|ក្បៀសក្រោម}} ''{{transl|km|
| Also known as {{lang|km|បុកជើង}} ''{{transl|km|
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|់}}</big>
| {{lang|km|បន្តក់}} ''{{transl|km|
| A small vertical line written over the last consonant of a syllable, indicating shortening (and corresponding change in quality) of certain vowels. See [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]].
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៌}}</big>
| {{lang|km|របាទ}} ''{{transl|km|rôbat}}''<br/>{{lang|km|រេផៈ}} ''{{transl|km|
| This superscript diacritic occurs in Sanskrit loanwords and corresponds to the [[Devanagari]] diacritic ''repha''. It originally represented an ''r'' sound (and is romanized as ''r'' in the
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៍}}</big>
| {{lang|km|ទណ្ឌឃាដ}} ''{{transl|km|
| Written over a final consonant to indicate that it is unpronounced. (Such unpronounced letters are still romanized in the
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៎}}</big>
Line 1,044 ⟶ 905:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|័}}</big>
| {{lang|km|សំយោគសញ្ញា}} ''{{transl|km|
| Used in some Sanskrit and Pali loanwords (although alternative spellings usually exist); it is written above a consonant to indicate that the syllable contains a particular short vowel; see [[#Modification by diacritics|Modification by diacritics]].
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៑}}</big>
| {{lang|km|វិរាម}} ''{{transl|km|vĭréam}}''
| A mostly obsolete diacritic, corresponding to the [[
|}
Line 1,056 ⟶ 917:
For the purpose of [[alphabetical order|dictionary ordering]]<ref>Different dictionaries use slightly different orderings; the system presented here is that used in the official ''Cambodian Dictionary'', as described by Huffman (1970), p. 305.</ref> of words, main consonants, subscript consonants and dependent vowels are all significant; and when they appear in combination, they are considered in the order in which they would be spoken (main consonant, subscript, vowel). The order of the [[#Consonants|consonants]] and of the [[#Dependent vowels|dependent vowels]] is the order in which they appear in the above tables. A syllable written without any dependent vowel is treated as if it contained a vowel character that precedes all the visible dependent vowels.
As mentioned above, the four [[#Modification by diacritics|configurations with diacritics]] exemplified in the syllables {{lang|km|អុំ អំ អាំ អះ}} are treated as dependent vowels in their own right, and come in that order at the end of the list of dependent vowels. Other configurations with the ''reăhmŭkh'' [[#Diacritics|diacritic]] are ordered as if that diacritic were a final consonant coming after all other consonants. Words with the ''
Vowels precede consonants in the ordering, so a combination of main and subscript consonants comes after any instance in which the same main consonant appears unsubscripted before a vowel.
Line 1,062 ⟶ 923:
Words spelled with an [[#Independent vowels|independent vowel]] whose sound begins with a glottal stop follow after words spelled with the equivalent combination of {{lang|km|អ}} ''’â'' plus dependent vowel. Words spelled with an independent vowel whose sound begins {{IPA|[r]}} or {{IPA|[l]}} follow after all words beginning with the consonants {{lang|km|រ}} ''rô'' and {{lang|km|ល}} ''lô'' respectively.
Words spelled with a consonant modified by a diacritic follow words spelled with the same consonant and dependent vowel symbol but without the diacritic. {{dubious|date=July 2016}} {{cit|date=July 2016}} However, words spelled with {{lang|km|ប៉ }} (a ''bâ'' converted to a ''p'' sound by a diacritic) follow all words with unmodified {{lang|km|ប}} ''bâ'' (without diacritic and without subscript). {{dubious|date=July 2016}} {{cit|date=July 2016}} Sometimes words in which {{lang|km|ប}} is pronounced ''p'' are ordered as if the letter were written {{lang|km|ប៉.}}.
== Numerals ==
Line 1,101 ⟶ 962:
[[Space (typography)|Spaces]] are not used between all words in written Khmer. Spaces are used within sentences in roughly the same places as [[comma]]s might be in English, although they may also serve to set off certain items such as numbers and proper names.
Western-style [[punctuation mark]]s are quite commonly used in modern Khmer writing, including French-style [[
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
Line 1,109 ⟶ 970:
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|។}}</big>
| {{lang|km|ខណ្ឌ}} ''
| style="text-align:left;" | Used as a [[Full stop|period]] (the sign resembles an [[eighth rest]] in music writing). However, consecutive sentences on the same theme are often separated only by spaces.
|-
Line 1,117 ⟶ 978:
|-
|<big>{{lang|km|ៗ}}</big>
| {{lang|km|លេខទោ}} ''
| style="text-align:left;" | Duplication sign (similar in form to the [[#Numerals|Khmer numeral]] for 2). It indicates that the preceding word or phrase is to be repeated ([[reduplication|duplicated]]), a common feature in Khmer syntax.
|-
|<big>{{lang|km|៕}}</big>
| {{lang|km|បរិយោសាន}} ''
| style="text-align:left;" | A period used to end an entire text or a chapter.
|-
|<big>{{lang|km|៚}}</big>
| {{lang|km|គោមូត្រ}} ''
| style="text-align:left;" | A period used at the end of poetic or religious texts.
|-
|<big>{{lang|km|៙}}</big>
| {{lang|km|ភ្នែកមាន់}} ''
| style="text-align:left;" | A symbol (said to represent the elephant trunk of [[Ganesha]]) used at the start of poetic or religious texts.
|-
| <big>{{lang|km|៖}}</big>
|{{lang|km|ចំណុចពីរគូស}} ''châmnŏch
| style="text-align:left;" | Used similarly to a [[colon (punctuation)|colon]]. (The middle line distinguishes this sign from a [[#Diacritics|diacritic]].)
|}
A [[hyphen]] (Khmer name {{lang|km|សហសញ្ញា}} ''sâhâ
== Styles ==
Several styles of Khmer writing are used for varying purposes. The two main styles are {{transl|km|''âksâr chriĕng''}} (literally "slanted script") and {{transl|km|''âksâr mul''}} ("round script").
[[File:Bhuddha Sutra in Thai-Khmer Font.JPG|thumb|''{{transl|km|
*'''''{{transl|km|Âksâr chriĕng}}''''' ({{lang|km|អក្សរជ្រៀង}}) refers to [[oblique type|oblique]] letters. Entire bodies of text such as novels and other publications may be produced in ''{{transl|km|âksâr chriĕng}}''. Unlike in [[Standard written English|written English]], oblique lettering does not represent any grammatical differences such as [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]] or quotation. Handwritten Khmer is often written in the oblique style.
*'''''{{transl|km|Âksâr chhôr}}''''' ({{lang|km|អក្សរឈរ}}) or '''''{{transl|km|Âksâr tráng}}''''' ({{lang|km|អក្សរត្រង់}}) refers to upright or 'standing' letters, as opposed to oblique letters. Most modern Khmer [[typeface]]s are designed in this manner instead of being oblique, as text can be italicized by way of word processor commands and other computer applications to represent the oblique manner of ''{{transl|km|âksâr chriĕng}}.''
*'''''{{transl|km|Âksâr khâm}}''''' ({{lang|km|អក្សរខម}})
*'''''{{transl|km|Âksâr mul}}''''' ({{lang|km|អក្សរមូល}}) is [[calligraphical]] style similar to ''{{transl|km|âksâr khâm}}'' as it also retains some characters reminiscent of antique Khmer script. Its name in Khmer means literally 'round script' and it refers to the bold and thick lettering style. It is used for titles and headings in Cambodian documents, on books, banknotes, shop signs and banners. It is sometimes used to emphasize royal names or other important names.
== Unicode ==
Line 1,160 ⟶ 1,014:
The basic [[Khmer (Unicode block)|Khmer block]] was added to the [[Unicode]] Standard in version 3.0, released in September 1999. It then contained 103 defined code points; this was extended to 114 in version 4.0, released in April 2003. Version 4.0 also introduced an additional block, called [[Khmer Symbols]], containing 32 signs used for writing [[lunar calendar|lunar dates]].
The Unicode block for basic Khmer characters is U+
{{Unicode chart Khmer}}
The first 35 characters are the [[#Consonants|consonant letter]]s (including two obsolete). The symbols at U+17A3 and U+17A4 are deprecated (they were intended for use in Pali and Sanskrit transliteration, but are identical in appearance to the consonant {{lang|km|អ}}, written alone or with the ''a'' vowel). These are followed by the 15 [[#Independent vowels|independent vowels]] (including one obsolete and one variant form). The code points U+17B4 and U+17B5 are invisible combining marks for inherent vowels, intended for use only in special applications. Next come the 16 [[#Dependent vowels|dependent vowel signs]] and the 12 [[#Diacritics|diacritics]] (excluding the ''kbiĕh kraôm'', which is identical in form to the ''ŏ'' dependent vowel); these are represented together with a dotted circle, but should be displayed appropriately in combination with a preceding Khmer letter.
The code point U+17D2, called {{lang|km|ជើង}} ''{{transl|km|ceung}}'', meaning "foot", is used to indicate that a following consonant is to be written in subscript form. It is not normally visibly rendered as a character. U+17D3 was originally intended for use in writing lunar dates, but its use is now discouraged (see the Khmer Symbols block hereafter). The next seven characters are the [[#Spacing and punctuation|punctuation marks]] listed hereinbefore; these are followed by the [[Cambodian riel|riel]] currency symbol, a rare sign corresponding to the Sanskrit [[avagraha]], and a mostly obsolete version of the ''vĭréam'' diacritic. The U+17Ex series contains the [[#Numerals|Khmer numerals]], and the U+17Fx series contains variants of the numerals used in [[divination]] lore.
The block with additional lunar date symbols is U+
{{Unicode chart Khmer Symbols}}
Line 1,177 ⟶ 1,029:
* [[Khmer Braille]]
* [[Romanization of Khmer]]
==Notes==
Line 1,187 ⟶ 1,038:
== External links ==
{{external links|date=October 2016}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050308154314/http://www.bauhahnm.clara.net/Khmer/Welcome.html FAQ and Resources on Khmer in Unicode]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060308232000/http://www.khmeros.info/drupal/?q=en%2Fsupport%2Ffaq%2Finstallation Enabling Khmer Unicode]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708045119/http://khmertype.blogspot.com/ Khmer Unicode in some mobile phones]
*[http://www.reankhmer.com/jml/classroom/9-khmer-consonant-chart Khmer Consonant Chart with Audio]
*[http://www.reankhmer.com/jml/classroom/10-khmer-vowel-chart Khmer Vowel Chart with Audio]
*[http://www.sbbic.org/lang/en-us/2010/07/15/how-to-install-khmer-unicode-on-windows-7/ How to Install Khmer Unicode on your Windows 7 Computer]
*[http://www.sbbic.org/lang/en-us/2010/03/27/how-to-install-khmer-unicode-on-your-windows-xp-computer/ How to Install Khmer Unicode on your Windows XP Computer]
*[http://omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm Omniglot entry on Khmer]
*[http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_km.pdf Khmer Romanization Table] (PDF)
*[http://www.leisurecambodia.com/news/detail.php?id=5 Evolution of the Khmer script]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20151121222905/http://www.bongthom.com/AKOnline/selectchapterek.asp Authentic Khmer Online] (common phrases in Khmer script with audio file examples)
*[http://datenkueche.com/extend.php?lang=km,en Khmer wordlist sortet frequenzy]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706180545/http://podcast.cbc.ca/mp3/dispatchesdonotusepl_20091029_22187.mp3 CBC radio documentary referring to development of keyboard for Khmer script]
*[http://www.sihanoukville-cambodia.com/about-sihanoukville/language.html A small Primer on the Khmer Language]
*[http://www.sihanoukville-cambodia.com/about-sihanoukville/language.html A Khmer Language Primer]
*https://symbl.cc/en/unicode/blocks/khmer/
*https://symbl.cc/en/unicode/blocks/khmer-symbols/
*http://www.angkorone.com/installkhmerfont.aspx
{{list of writing systems}}
Line 1,195 ⟶ 1,062:
[[Category:Khmer script| ]]
[[Category:Khmer language]]
[[Category:Writing systems without word boundaries]]
|