Punk rock

Template:Punkbox Punk rock is an anti-establishment rock music genre and movement that emerged in the 1970s. While the genre had been preceded by various forms of protopunk music from the 1960s and the early 1970s, the genre's immediate origins lie in a number of artists who emerged from the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia, between 1974 and 1975 — exemplified by bands such as the Ramones and Sex Pistols.

Punk rock rejected many of the perceived excesses of 1970s rock music, and emphasised music that was fast, short in duration, and featured basic instrumentation, often accompanied by political or social lyrics. The associated punk subculture involves youthful aggression, specific clothing styles, ideologies, and a DIY (do it yourself) attitude.

Punk rock became a major phenomenon in the United Kingdom during the late 1970s, but its popularity was more sporadic elsewhere. During the 1980s, various forms of punk rock emerged in small scenes around the world, often outright rejecting commercial success or association with mainstream culture. By the end of the 20th century, the legacy of punk rock had resulted in the formation of the alternative rock movement, while new punk bands popularized the genre decades after its initial heyday.

Characteristics

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Cover of the Ramones' critically acclaimed debut album

Early punk sought to be aggressively modern, and in its attempts to cut itself off from the nostalgia and sentimentality of early 1970s rock, declared 1977 to be, musically, "Year Zero". Punk formed independanly in many different loacations, refecting a general reaction against 1970s popular music forms such as disco and progressive rock, as well as the remnant ideologies of the 1960s hippie counterculture. The first wave of punk focused aggressively on the present, while also making a rhetorical fetish of the Sex Pistols slogan "No Future". Influenced by the attitude of such 1960s artists as The Velvet Underground, The Stooges, the MC5, and the New York Dolls, punk also drew from early 1970s influences; including the British pub rock, glam rock and art rock scenes.

Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren recalls feeling "punk rock had to come along because the rock scene had become so tame that bands like Billy Joel and Simon and Garfunkel were being called rock and roll, when to me and other fans, rock and roll meant this wild and rebellious music." According to Ramones drummer Tommy Ramone: "in its initial form, a lot of [60s] stuff was innovative and exciting. Unfortunately, what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of Hendrix started noodling away. Soon you had endless solos that went nowhere. By 1973, I knew that what was needed was some pure, stripped down, no bullshit rock 'n' roll."

Punk bands often emulate the bare musical structures and arrangements of 1960s garage rock bands. This emphasis on accessibility exemplifies punk's DIY aesthetic, and contrasts with the ostentatious musicianship of many of the mainstream rock bands popular in the years before the advent of punk. In 1976, the English punk fanzine Sideburns included drawings of three chords, captioned: "This is a chord, this is another, this is a third. Now form a band".

UK punks, circa 1986

Typical punk instrumentation includes a drum kit, one or two electric guitars, an electric bass and vocals. Drums typically sound heavy and dry, and often have a minimal set-up. In the early days of punk rock, musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion. According to Punk magazine founder John Holmstrom, punk was "rock and roll by people who didn't have very much skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music".

Complicated guitar solos were considered self-indulgent and unnecessary, although basic guitar breaks were still common. Bass guitar lines are often basic and used to carry the song's melody, although some punk bass players such as Mike Watt put greater emphasis on more technical bass lines. Guitar parts tend to include highly-distorted power chords, although some punk bands have taken a surf rock approach with a lighter, twangier guitar tone. Production is minimalistic, with tracks sometimes laid down on home tape recorders. Punk vocals sometimes sound nasal, and are often shouted instead of sung in a conventional sense.

Punk songs are normally between two and two and a half minutes long, though many last for less than a minute. Most early punk songs retained a traditional rock & roll verse-chorus form and 4/4 time signature. However, second wave punk bands — including bands from both the post-punk and hardcore punk subgenres — often sought to break from that format. In hardcore, the drumming is considerably faster, with lyrics often half shouted over aggressive guitars. American author Steven Blush wrote: "The Sex Pistols were still rock'n'roll. ... they were like the craziest version of Chuck Berry. Hardcore was a radical departure from that. It wasn't verse-chorus rock. It dispelled any notion of what songwriting is supposed to be. It's its own form".

By the mid-1970s, punk lyrics began to involve confrontational frankness, and commentaries on social and political issues. Songs such as The Clash's "Career Opportunities", "London's Burning" and Chelsea's "Right to Work", dealt with unemployment, boredom, and other grim realities of urban life. The Sex Pistols songs "God Save the Queen" and "Anarchy in the U.K." were openly disparaging of the British political system. Others were violent or anti-romantic in depictions of sex and love, such as The Voidoids' "Love Comes in Spurts".

Pre History

Protopunk, 1970-74

Further information: Protopunk

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The Stooges, an important formative influence on punk

Though the first generation of punk musicians found much to react against in early 1970s rock music, the period was not the cultural wasteland received wisdom suggests. Between 1970 and 1974, bands that would later come to be recognized as punk were formed independently in many different locations. Though they did not yet form a cohesive movement, and often differed radically in sound, these bands can be connected by a sensibility that set them apart from the prevailing mainstream. Creating an alternative to the utopianism and positivity of the late sixties, proto punk bands were minimalistic and aggressive in their musical approach, and lyrically dealt with taboo subject matter. However, these regional scenes were usually comprised of only a small local audience, and were frequently amazed, or dismayed, to discover like-minded musicians exploring a similar path. For example, Ed Kuepper of The Saints said:

One thing I remember having had a really depressing effect on me was the first Ramones album. When I heard it [in 1976], I mean it was a great record ... but I hated it because I knew we’d been doing this sort of stuff for years. There was even a chord progression on that album that we used ... and I thought, 'Fuck. We’re going to be labeled as influenced by the Ramones,' when nothing could have been further from the truth.

In Ohio, a small but influential underground rock scene emerged, led by Devo, The Electric Eels and Rocket from the Tombs, who in 1975 split into Pere Ubu and The Dead Boys. In London, the Pub rock scene stripped rock back to its basics, and provided a grounding for many of the key players in the later punk explosion, including the Clash, The Stranglers, and Cock Sparrer. In New York, the New York Dolls updated the original wildness of 1950s rock 'n' roll to suit the 1970s. Other notable scenes developed independently in Brisbane (The Saints), Detroit (MC5), and Düsseldorf (NEU!).

These early bands operated within small, local "scenes", often facilitated by enthusiastic impresarios who either operated clubs, or organised gigs in such areas as schools, garages, and warehouses, while also running locally printed flyers and fanzines. This do-it-yourself ethic often had its roots in an aversion to commercial success, as well as in a desire to maintain autonomy.

Origin of the term punk

The word punk originated in the 1950s, when it was used to describe a hoodlum, ruffian, or worthless person. The term punk rock was coined by rock critic Dave Marsh in a 1970 issue of Creem, when he used it to describe the sound and attitude of ? and the Mysterians. In 1972, Lenny Kaye used the term in the liner notes of the anthology album Nuggets to refer to 1960s garage rock bands such as The Standells, The Sonics, and The Seeds. Bomp maintained this usage through the early 1970s, also applying it to some of the darker, more primitive practitioners of 1960s psychedelic rock.

By 1975, punk was being used to described acts as diverse as Patti Smith, the Bay City Rollers, and Bruce Springsteen. As the CBGB scene in New York attracted notice, critics rushed to name the developing sound. Hilly Kristal called the movement "street rock", while Aquaria magazine is credited with first applying the term to the CBGB bands. It was John Holmstrom, Legs McNeil, and Ged Dunn's Punk magazine, however, that definitely codified the term. "It was pretty obvious that the word was getting very popular," Holmstrom later remarked. "We figured we'd take the name before anyone else claimed it. We wanted to get rid of the bullshit, strip it down to rock'n'roll. We wanted the fun and liveliness back."

Early History

New York

Template:Sound sample box align right Template:Sample box end The origins of New York's punk scene can be traced back to such sources as late 1960s trash culture and an early 1970s underground rock movement centered around the Mercer Arts Center in Greenwich Village, where the New York Dolls performed. In 1974, the members of a band from Forest Hills, Queens, adopted a common surname. Drawing on such sources as the Beatles, Herman's Hermits, The Beach Boys, and 1960s girl groups, the Ramones condensed rock 'n' roll to its primal level: "'1-2-3-4!' bass-player Dee Dee Ramone shouted at the start of every song, as if the group could barely master the rudiments of rhythm".

Facade of legendary music club CBGB, New York.

By the following year, they were playing regularly at the lower Manhattan club CBGB. "When I first saw the Ramones," critic Mary Harron later remembered, "I couldn't believe people were doing this. The dumb brattiness." CBGB was already the regular venue for another band that played very loud, but much more complex music, Television. The band's bassist/singer, Richard Hell, created a look including "leather jackets, torn T-shirts, and short, ragamuffin hair" credited as the basis for punk visual style. Early in 1975, Hell wrote "Blank Generation", the scene's emblematic anthem of escape; a recording of the song by Hell and a new band of his, The Voidoids, would first be released in 1976. Another regular performer at the club was Patti Smith, a veteran of independent theater and performance poetry, who was developing an intellectual, feminist take on rock 'n' roll. Her debut album Horses, one of the seminal punk records, was produced by John Cale of the Velvet Underground, and released in November 1975.

The first issue of Punk appeared in December 1975. The new magazine tied together earlier artists such as Lou Reed, the Stooges, and the New York Dolls with the array of new bands centered around the CBGB and Max's Kansas City venues: the Ramones, Television, The Heartbreakers (started in May 1975 by Richard Hell with former Dolls' guitarist Johnny Thunders, who would oust Hell early in 1976), Patti Smith, Talking Heads, Blondie, and others. The term "punk" initially referred to the scene in general, more than the sound itself. The early New York punk bands represented a broad variety of influences; though the Ramones and Richard Hell's post-Television bands were establishing a distinct style, punk rock was not yet defined by the standards of minimalism, speed, and arrogance that later emerged.

Emergence of other scenes

During 1977, punk music spread across the United States. Lacking an underground musical infrastructure, different areas of the country generated very different interpations of the punk rock sound. In Los Angeles, The Germs reflected the primitivism of the Ramones, with lyrics such as "The drums are too slow...the chords are all wrong, they're making the bass too long—Aaah, I quit!" In San Francisco, the fanzine Search and Destroy gave voice to explicitly left-wing punk bands including The Nuns and the Dead Kennedys. According to Search and Destroy founder V. Vale, "Punk was a total cultural revolt. It was a hardcore confrontation with the black side of history and culture, right-wing imagery, sexual taboos, a delving into it that had never been done before by any generation in such a thorough way." Though punk was to remain largely an underground phenomenon in America during the 1970s, in the UK it became a broad-based sensation.

The UK

Template:Sample box end After a brief period managing the New York Dolls in the US, Englishman Malcolm McLaren returned to London in May 1975, inspired by the new scene he had witnessed at CBGB. He opened SEX, a clothing store which specialised in "anti-fashion", and sold the slashed T-shirts, drapes, brothel creepers and fetish gear later popularised by the punk movement. He took over management of The Swankers, who would soon evolve into the Sex Pistols. The Sex Pistols developed an early cult following in London, centered on a clique known as the Bromley Contingent (named after the suburb where many of them had grown up).

Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols, widely thought to contain most typical characteristics of punk

On July 4, 1976, the Ramones played to a crowd of three thousand at at the Roundhouse in London. Many of the future leaders of the UK punk rock scene were inspired by this show, and almost immediately afterward, the UK punk scene found its feet. By the end of 1976, many fans of the Sex Pistols had formed their own bands, including The Clash, Joy Division, Siouxsie & the Banshees, The Adverts, Generation X, The Slits, and X-Ray Spex. Other UK bands to emerge in this milieu included The Damned (the first to release a single, the classic "New Rose"), The Jam, The Vibrators, Buzzcocks, and the appropriately named London.

In December of 1976, the Sex Pistols, The Clash, The Damned, and The Heartbreakers united for the Anarchy Tour, a series of gigs throughout the UK. Many of the gigs were cancelled by venue owners, after tabloid newspapers and other media seized on sensational stories regarding the antics of both the bands and their fans. The notoriety of punk rock exploded in the UK during an infamous televised incident that was widely publicised in the tabloid press. On Thames Today, an early evening London TV show, guitarist Steve Jones of the Sex Pistols was goaded into a verbal altercation by the host, Bill Grundy, and swore at him on live television, outraging a nation.

One of the first books about punk rock — "The Boy Looked at Johnny" by Julie Burchill and Tony Parsons (December 1977) — declared the punk movement to be already over: the subtitle was The Obituary of Rock and Roll. The title echoed a lyric from the title track of Patti Smith's 1975 album Horses.

The second wave

During 1977, a second wave of U.S. and UK punk bands emerged, including The Misfits, Black Flag, Wire, Crass, and Stiff Little Fingers. Even as these new bands harnessed the energy and aggression of earlier punk, they also developed its sound. Employing a wider variety of tempos and more complex instrumentation, the second wave infused punk with elements of synth, dub, and noise music.

Cover of The Clash album London Calling

In London, bands such as The Clash, The Police, and The Slits interacted with the Jamaican reggae and ska subcultures and incorporated their rhythms and production styles. By the end of the 1970s, punk had spawned the 2 Tone ska revival movement, formed around bands such as The Beat, The Specials, Madness, and The Selecter.

Punk scenes began to emerge around the world. In Germany, the Neue Deutsche Welle (NDW) movement was led by groups such as DAF, Einstürzende Neubauten, and the Nina Hagen Band. NDW brought together a diverse audience, with members of the Krautrock and alternative scenes on one hand, and Nazi skinheads on the other. These opposing factions were united by a feeling that rock 'n' roll had lost its anti-establishment edge since the late 1960s, and that punk rock was "'against the system' politically as well as musically." In France, a scene grew from a Parisian pre-punk subculture of Lou Reed fans calling themselves les punks, and developed around bands such as Métal Urbain and Oberkampf. Notable punk scenes also grew in countries such as Japan (The Stalin, Star Club), Belgium (The Kids, Cell 609), the Netherlands (The Ex, God's Heart Attack), and Sweden (Ebba Grön).

Subgenres and derivative forms

As the early media hype surrounding punk ebbed in the late 1970s, the movement fragmented into subgenres, some that gained broad popularity, others that became closely linked with underground cultures. The early unity between arty, middle-class bohemians and working-class kids began to fracture, leading to the rise of New Wave and post-punk on one side, and hardcore punk and its UK equivalent, Oi!, on the other. Anarcho-punk bands used their music for a committed political agenda, while pop punk groups created blends like that of the perfect record as defined by Mekons cofounder Kevin Lycett: "a cross between Abba and the Sex Pistols".

New Wave and post-punk

For more details on these topics, see New Wave music and post-punk. Template:Sound sample box align right Template:Sample box end New Wave and its attendant subculture arose along with the earliest punk groups; indeed, "punk" and "New Wave" were for a time interchangeable. By the late 1970s, however, the terms had different meanings: bands pursuing musical experimentation, lyrical complexity, or more polished production such as Talking Heads, Television, and Devo were called "New Wave" rather than "punk". Combining elements of early punk music and fashion with a far more pop-oriented and less "dangerous" style, early 1980s New Wave artists such as The Cars, Blondie, Elvis Costello, and The Police became some of the most popular bands on both sides of the Atlantic.

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The influential post-punk band Joy Division

In the UK, a wide variety of post-punk bands emerged, including Joy Division, The Fall, Gang of Four, and Public Image Ltd; though some, such as Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire, had been active as pre-punk bands for several years. The music was often experimental, like that of the New Wave bands; defining them as "post-punk" was a sound that tended to be less pop and more dark and abrasive. Drawing inspiration from such art rock sources as Captain Beefheart, Krautrock, David Bowie, and Television, post punk was a period of broad experimentation, both musically and lyrically. The Fall's Mark E. Smith delivered North of England Magic Realist lyrics through an "alcohol-addled yarn", while female vocalists including Ari Up, Lydia Lunch and Lydus introduced a female perspective previously absent in rock music.

A cultural war of post punk versus Old Wave fraternized an array of musicians, journalists, managers, and entrepreneurs; the latter of whom, notably Geoff Travis of Rough Trade and Tony Wilson of Factory, helped to develop the production and distribution infrastructure that spawned the indie scene of the mid 1980s, and early 1990s. Rolls switched as journalists began to make records and musicians such as Pere Ubu's David Thomas wrote reviews and features.

Many of the post punk bands went on to huge commercial sucess, as New Order, Depeche Mode, and U2 crossed-over to a mainstream US audience. However, other figures, including Gang of Four and Throbbing Gristle, went largely unrecoginised at the time, though they are latterly seen to have had a significant influence on modern popular culture.

Hardcore

Further information: Hardcore punk

Template:Sample box end Hardcore punk, characterized by fast, aggressive beats and often politically aware lyrics, emerged in the United States in the late 1970s. According to author Steven Blush, "Hardcore comes from the bleak suburbs of America. Parents moved their kids out of the cities to these horrible suburbs to save them from the 'reality' of the cities and what they ended up with was this new breed of monster".

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Black Flag, June 1985

Described by critic Jon Savage as "a rush of claustrophobic nihilism", hardcore developed on both sides of the country. In New York, a large hardcore punk movement emerged, led by bands such as Agnostic Front, The Cro-Mags, Murphy's Law, and Sick of it All. Other important East Coast bands included Bad Brains and Minor Threat, both from Washington, D.C. In California, there were Dead Kennedys, Black Flag, Circle Jerks, The Germs, and The Descendents. The lyrical content of their songs, typified by Dead Kennedys' "Holiday In Cambodia", was often critical of commercial culture and middle-class values. Straight edge bands like Minor Threat and Boston's SS Decontrol rejected the self destructive lifesyle of many of their peers, and built a movement based on positivity and abstinence from cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs.

During the 1980s, bands such as Minutemen, Hüsker Dü, and Mission of Burma, broke away from the 'loud-fast' hardcore formula, and diversified the genre's sound. Toward the end of the decade and into the early 1990s, entire new subgenres sprung out of the movement, including metalcore, grunge and riot grrrl.

Oi!

Further information: Oi!

Template:Sample box end In the UK, bands in the Oi! movement such as Cockney Rejects, Cock Sparrer, The Exploited, The 4-Skins, and Sham 69 sought to realign punk with it's working-class, street-level following. The music was often accompanied by lyrics that aimed to reflect the harsh realities of living in Thatcher's Britain in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Oi! was not named until the early 1980s, by which time many of the leading bands had been active for some years. The English journalist Garry Bushell is credited with coining the term, partly derived from the Cockney Rejects' habit of shouting "Oi! Oi! Oi!" before each song, rather than the time honoured "1, 2, 3, 4!".

Cover art for The Exploited's Punk's Not Dead LP

Oi! was formed partly in reaction to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic...and losing touch". The Oi! credo held that the music needed to remain unpretentious and accessible. According to Garry Bushell,

"Punk was meant to be of the voice of the dole queue, and in reality most of them were not. But Oi was the reality of the punk mythology. In the places where [these bands] came from, it was harder and more aggressive and it produced just as much quality music".

Most Oi! participants, both in the initial wave and later revivals, were either left-wing or apolitical. However, bands such as Sham 69 and the Angelic Upstarts began to attract a white power skinhead following, and in the popular imagination the movement became associated with the far right. Though racist skinheads often disrupted Oi! concerts by shouting fascist slogans and starting fights with non-skinhead punks, the bands were reluctant to endorse criticism from what they perceived as a middle-class press. On July 4, 1981, a concert in Hamborough Tavern in Southall, featuring The Business, The 4-Skins, and The Last Resort, was firebombed by local Asian youth who believed it to be a neo-Nazi gathering. The bands were attacked, and a riot ensued. Within days the incident had sparked a series of race riots in inner cities across Britain, including Toxteth in Liverpool. The Southall riot tarred Oi! as a far-right scene in the minds of much of the press, and the movement soon began to lose momentum.

Anarcho-punk

Further information: Anarcho-punk

Crass were the originators of anarcho-punk. Their all-black militaristic dress became a staple of the genre.

Anarcho-punk developed alongside the British Oi! and American hardcore movements. With a primitive, stripped-down musical style and ranting, shouted vocals, bands such as Crass, Subhumans, Flux of Pink Indians, Conflict, Poison Girls and The Apostles attempted to transform the punk rock scene into a full-blown anarchist movement. As with straight-edge, anarcho-punk is based around a set of values and principals, including prohibitions on wearing leather, eating meat, and drinking milk. The genre would later mutate into several subgenres of a similar political bent, including D-beat, Crust punk, and folk punk.

Pop punk

Further information: Pop punk

Bands sharing the Ramones' bubblegum pop influences established a distinct style of punk rock, more melodic than typical hardcore and with lyrics more likely to focus on personal relationships and having fun than on political and nihilistic themes. In the late 1970s, UK bands such as the Buzzcocks and The Undertones led the way to pop punk. In the early 1980s, the emerging subgenre was defined by California-based bands such as Bad Religion and, in particular, the Descendents. Groups that fused punk rock with pop melodies—such as The Queers and Screeching Weasel—followed in their wake, in turn influencing bands like Green Day and blink-182, who would bring pop punk to the mainstream.

Legacy and recent developments

Alternative rock

Further information: Alternative rock

The underground punk movement produced countless bands that either evolved from a punk rock sound, or applied its spirit and DIY ethics to very different kinds of music. During the early 1980s, British bands like The Cure and New Order (formed by the surviving members of Joy Division) developed new musical styles based in post-punk and New Wave. American bands such as Hüsker Dü bridged the gap between punk genres like hardcore and the more expansive sound of what at the time was called "college rock". A 1985 Rolling Stone feature on the likes of Black Flag, Hüsker Dü, Minutemen, and The Replacements declared, "Primal punk is passé. The best of the American punk rockers have moved on. They have learned how to play their instruments. They have discovered melody, guitar solos and lyrics that are more than shouted political slogans. Some of them have even discovered the Grateful Dead." By the end of the 1980s, these bands, who had largely eclipsed their punk forebears in popularity, were classified broadly as alternative rock.

Sonic Youth performing in Stockholm in 2005

As alternative bands like Sonic Youth and the Pixies started to gain larger audiences, major labels sought to capitalize on a market that had been growing underground for the past 10 years. In 1991, Nirvana achieved huge commercial success with their sophomore album, Nevermind. The band cited punk as a key influence on their music. "Punk is musical freedom" wrote singer Kurt Cobain, "It’s saying, doing and playing what you want". Although they sometimes labelled themselves as punk rock and championed many barely known punk predecessors, Nirvana's music also derived from garage rock, indie rock, and heavy metal. Nirvana's success fueled the alternative rock boom that had been underway since the late 1980s and helped define that segment of 1990s popular music. The resulting shift in popular taste is chronicled in the film 1991: The Year Punk Broke, which features Nirvana, Dinosaur Jr, and Sonic Youth.

The punk revival

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Green Day performing on Jimmy Kimmel Live

Along with Nirvana, many of the leading alternative rock artists of the early 1990s acknowledged earlier punk acts, both famous and obscure, as their inspiration, helping to produce a punk rock resurgence. In 1994, bands like Green Day, The Offspring, Rancid, and Bad Religion had substantial crossover success with the aid of MTV and popular radio stations like KROQ-FM. While Green Day and Bad Religion were already on major labels, indie record companies like Epitaph also benefited from punk's revival. Green Day's enormous success paved the way for pop-punk bands such as blink-182, Simple Plan, Good Charlotte, and Sum 41 over the following decade. The late 1990s also saw a ska punk revival, which continued into the 2000s with bands like Reel Big Fish, Less Than Jake,No Doubt and The Mighty Mighty Bosstones.

Some in the punk community were wary of the music being co-opted by the mainstream. Participants in the scene complained that by signing to major labels and appearing on MTV, punk bands like Green Day were buying into the system that punk was created to challenge. Such controversies had been part of the punk phenomenon since the Clash were widely accused of "selling out" when they signed with CBS Records in 1977. By the 1990s, punk rock was sufficiently ingrained in Western culture that punk trappings were often used to market completely commercial bands as "rebels". Marketers capitalized on the style and its connotations of hipness to such an extent that a 1993 ad campaign for an automobile, the Subaru Impreza, could claim it was "like punk rock". At the same time that the commercial mainstream has integrated many elements of punk, numerous underground punk scenes still exist around the world.

Sources

• Azerrad, Michael, Our Band Could Be Your Life (New York: Little, Brown, 2001). ISBN 0-316-78753-1
• Buckley, Peter, ed. The Rough Guide to Rock (London: Rough Guides, 2003) ISBN 1-84353-105-4
• Burchill, Julie, and Tony Parsons, The Boy Looked At Johnny: The Obituary of Rock and Roll (London: Pluto Press, 1978). ISBN 0-86104-030-9
• Burns, Rob, ed., German Cultural Studies: An Introduction (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). ISBN 0-1987-1503-X
• Hebdige, Dick, Cut 'n' Mix: Culture, Identity and Caribbean Music (London: Routledge, 1987). ISBN 0-4150-5875-9
• Klein, Naomi, No LOGO: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies (New York: Picador, 2000). ISBN 0-312-20343-8
• Knowles, Chris, Clash City Showdown (Otsego, Mich.: PageFree, 2003). ISBN 1-58961-138-1
• McNeil, Legs, and Gillian McCain, Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk (New York: Penguin Books, 1997). ISBN 0-14-026690-9
• Myers, Ben, Green Day: American Idiots & the New Punk Explosion (New York: Disinformation, 2006). ISBN 1-932857-32-X
• Reynolds, Simon, Rip It Up and Start Again: Post Punk 1978–1984 (London and New York: Faber and Faber, 2005). ISBN 0-571-21569-6
• Robb, John, Punk Rock: An Oral History (London: Elbury Press, 2006). ISBN 0-09-190511-7
• Sabin, Roger, Punk Rock, So What? The Cultural Legacy of Punk (London: Routledge, 1999). ISBN 0-415-17030-3.
• Savage, Jon, England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock (London: Faber and Faber, 1991). ISBN 0-312-28822-0
• Shuker, Roy, Popular Music: The Key Concepts (London: Routledge, 2002). ISBN 0-4152-8425-2
• Walsh, Gavin, Punk on 45; Revolutions on Vinyl, 1976–79 (London: Plexus, 2006). ISBN 0-8596-5370-6
• Wells, Steven, Punk: Loud, Young & Snotty: The Story Behind the Songs (New York and London: Thunder's Mouth, 2004). ISBN 1-56025-573-0

Further reading

• Glasper, Ian, Burning Britain—The History of UK Punk 1980–1984 (London: Cherry Red Books). ISBN 1-901447-24-3
• Haenfler, Ross, Straight Edge: Hardcore Punk, Clean-Living Youth, and Social Change (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006). ISBN 0-8135-3852-1
• O'Hara, Craig, The Philosophy of Punk: More Than Noise (San Francisco and Edinburgh: AK Press, 1999). ISBN 1-873176-16-3

External links

• A History of Punk
• Punk 77 History of UK punk
• Punk Zine Archive - read out-of-print punk zines online
• Punk Flyer Gallery - original punk flyers viewable online