A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Indian spiritual teacher (1896–1977)}} |
{{Short description|Indian spiritual teacher (1896–1977)}} |
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{{Redirect2|Bhaktivedanta|Prabhupada|the college|International Society for Krishna Consciousness|other people called Prabhupada|Prabhupad (disambiguation){{!}}Prabhupad}} |
{{Redirect2|Bhaktivedanta|Prabhupada|the college|International Society for Krishna Consciousness|other people called Prabhupada|Prabhupad (disambiguation){{!}}Prabhupad}} |
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{{Use American English|date=February 2024}} |
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{{Infobox Hindu leader |
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| name = A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada |
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{{Infobox religious biography |
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| image = Srila Prabhupada.jpg |
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| alt = A close-up portrait of an elderly Indian man in crimson sweater and with a shaved head and a flower garland, clapping hands. |
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| monastic_name = {{IAST|Abhaya Caraṇāravinda Bhakti-vedānta Svāmī}} |
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| caption = |
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| honorific-prefix = His Divine Grace |
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| title = Founder-[[Acharya]] of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] |
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| honorific-suffix = [[Prabhupāda]] |
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| religion = [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] ([[Hinduism]]) |
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| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1896|09|01}} |
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| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] |
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| caption = A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami in Germany, 1974 |
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| birth_name = Abhay Charan De |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1977|11|14|1896|09|01}} |
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| philosophy = [[Bhakti yoga]] |
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| death_place = [[Vrindavan]], [[India]] |
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| guru = [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur]] |
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| lineage = from [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] |
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| known_for = the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna movement]] |
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| other_name = |
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| works = {{ubl|''[[Bhagavata Purana|Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam]]'' (trans. and comm.) | ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita|Caitanya-caritāmṛta]]'' (trans. and comm.)|''[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|Bhagavad-gītā As It Is]]'' (trans. and comm.) | ''[[Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead|Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead]]'' | ''Teachings of Lord Caitanya'' | ''The Nectar of Devotion'' | ''[[Isha Upanishad|Īśopaniṣad]]'' (trans. and comm.)}} |
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| birth_name = Abhay Charan De |
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| module = {{Listen |
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| native_name_lang = |
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|filename = Prabhupada's purport on Hare Krsna mantra.ogg |
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| birth_date = {{birth date|1896|09|01|df=yes}} |
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|title = Prabhupada explains the Hare Krishna mantra |
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| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] |
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|description = recorded in October 1966. (5:20) |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|1977|11|14|1896|09|01|df=yes}} |
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|image = none |
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| death_place = [[Vrindavan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India |
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| embed = yes |
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| resting_place = Srila Prabhupada's ''[[Samadhi (shrine)|Samadhi Mandir]]'', [[Krishna Balaram Mandir|ISKCON Vrindavan]] |
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| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|27.57196|77.67729}} |
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| alma_mater = [[Scottish Church College]], [[University of Calcutta]]<ref name="Info"/> |
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| location = |
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| period = 1966–1977 |
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| consecration = |
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| predecessor = |
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| reason = |
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| rank = |
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| teacher = |
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| reincarnation_of = |
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| students = |
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| works = ''[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is]]'', ''[[Bhāgavata Purāṇa#Translations|Śrīmad Bhāgavatam]]'' (translation), ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita|Caitanya Caritāmṛta]]'' (trans.) |
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| initiation = ''[[Diksha]]'', 1933 (by [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]])<br />''[[Sannyasa]]'', 1959 (by [[Bhakti Prajnan Keshava]]) |
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| initiation_date = |
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| initiation_place = |
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| initiator = |
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| ordination = |
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| previous_post = |
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| present_post = |
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| post = Founder-''[[Acharya]]'' of [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] |
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| website = {{URL|https://prabhupada.krishna.com}} |
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| background = #ffca6e |
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}} |
}} |
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| footnotes = |
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| signature = Srila Prabhupada's signature.svg |
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| signature_alt = Close-up of the name written in English with angular letters |
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| background = Orange |
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}} |
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{{quote box|width=21em|title=Quotation|quote="Godhead is light. Nescience is darkness. Where there is Godhead there is no nescience".}} |
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{{Vaishnavism}} |
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{{Contains special characters|Indic}} |
{{Contains special characters|Indic}} |
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'''A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada''' ({{IAST3|Abhaya Caraṇāravinda Bhakti-vedānta Svāmī Prabhupāda}} (1896–1977) was the twentieth-century spiritual, philosophical, and religious teacher from [[India]] who spread the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]] and the teachings of “[[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Krishna consciousness]]” to the world. Born as Abhay Charan De and later legally named Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami, he is often referred to simply as “Bhaktivedanta Swami”, "Srila Prabhupada", or simply “Prabhupada”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=22}} |
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'''Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada''' ({{IAST3|Abhaya Caraṇāravinda Bhakti-vedānta Svāmī Prabhupāda}}; 1 September 1896 – 14 November 1977<ref name="Info"/>) was an Indian [[Hinduism|Hindu]] spiritual teacher who was the founder of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON),<ref name="Srivatsa" /> commonly known as the Hare Krishna movement.<ref name="Info" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinreligio0000unse |title=Who's Who in Religion |edition=2nd |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=[[Marquis Who's Who]] |year=1977 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinreligio0000unse/page/531/mode/1up 531] |isbn=0-8379-1602-X |quote=Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, leader, Hare Krishna Movement. Founder, Internat. Soc. for Krishna Consciousness, 1965.}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Britannica|255215|Hare Krishna|J. Gordon Melton}}</ref> Followers of ISKCON view Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada as a representative and messenger of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|author-link=Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|year=1968|title=Prabhupada: Messenger of The Supreme Lord|location=India|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Publications]]|pages=vi|isbn=978-8189574307}}</ref> |
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To carry out an order received in his youth from his spiritual teacher to spread “Krishna consciousness” in [[English language|English]], in his [[old age]], at 69, he journeyed in 1965 from [[Kolkata]] to [[New York City]] on a [[cargo ship]], taking with him little more than a few trunks of books. He knew no one in [[United States|America]], but he chanted Hare Krishna in a [[Tompkins Square Park|park in New York City]], gave [[Pravacana|classes]], and in 1966, with the help of some early students, established the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)]], which now has centers throughout the world. |
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Born in Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]) to a [[Suvarna Banik]] family,<ref>{{cite web|title=Interview with Srila Prabhupada's Grand-Nephew - Sankarsan Prabhu|url=http://bvmlu.org/contemporary/sankarsan.html|access-date=19 January 2022|website=bvmlu.org|archive-date=25 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225181221/http://bvmlu.org/contemporary/sankarsan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> he was educated at the [[Scottish Church College]].<ref name="Info">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9|pages=77–78}}</ref> While working at a small [[pharmaceutical]] business,<ref name="Rodes">{{Harvnb|Rhodes|2001|p=178}}</ref> he met and became a follower of [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]]. In 1959, after his retirement, he left his family to become a ''[[sannyasa|sannyasi]]'' and started writing commentaries on Vaishnava scriptures.<ref name="SDG9">{{Harvnb|Goswami|2002|loc=Vol.1 Chapter 9}}</ref> As a travelling Vaishnava monk, he became an influential communicator of Gaudiya Vaishnavite theology across India and the [[Western world]] through his leadership of ISKCON, founded in 1966.<ref name = kk2>{{Harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=217}}</ref><ref name="ex23">{{Harvnb|Ekstrand|Bryant|2004|p=23}}</ref> He was well regarded by a number of American [[religious scholar]]s but was criticised by [[Anti-cult movement|anti-cult groups]].<ref name="Vasan2">{{Harvnb|Vasan|Lewis|2005|p=129}}</ref> |
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He taught a path in which one aims at realizing oneself to be an [[Ātman (Hinduism)|eternal spiritual being]], distinct from one’s temporary material body, and seeks to revive one’s dormant relationship with the [[Svayam Bhagavan|supreme living being]], known by the [[Sanskrit]] name [[Krishna]]. One does this through various practices, especially through hearing about Krishna from standard texts, chanting [[Mantra|mantras]] consisting of names of Krishna, and adopting a life of devotional service to Krishna. As part of these practices, Prabhupada required that his initiated students strictly refrain from [[gambling]], eating meat, fish, and eggs, using [[Psychoactive drug|intoxicants]] (even coffee, tea, or cigarettes), and engaging in [[extramarital sex]]. In contrast to earlier Indian teachers who had promoted in the West the idea that the ultimate truth is essentially impersonal, he taught that the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Absolute]] is ultimately personal. |
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He has been subject to criticism over his [[racism|racist views]] against [[black people]], discrimination against [[shudras|lower castes]], [[anti-Semitism]], negative views on women, and advocacy of crimes of [[Adolf Hitler]].<ref name="Bryant">{{cite book | last1=Bryant | first1=E. | last2=Ekstrand | first2=M. | title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-231-50843-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC | pages=350–377 | access-date=24 February 2023 | archive-date=22 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165940/https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Rochford">{{cite book | last=Rochford | first=E.B. | title=Hare Krishna Transformed | publisher=[[New York University Press]] | series=New and Alternative Religions | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-8147-7688-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPqgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 | page=126 | access-date=1 March 2023 | archive-date=1 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301053839/https://books.google.com/books?id=XPqgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Scheck | first=Frank | title='Hare Krishna! The Mantra, the Movement and the Swami Who Started It All': Film Review | website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] | date=21 June 2017 | url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/hare-krishna-mantra-movement-swami-who-started-all-1015535/ | access-date=1 March 2023 | archive-date=1 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301064414/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/hare-krishna-mantra-movement-swami-who-started-all-1015535/ | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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His duty as a [[guru]], or teacher, he held, was to convey intact the message of Krishna as found in core spiritual texts such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''. To this end, he wrote and published a translation and commentary he called ''[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|Bhagavad-gita As It Is]].'' He also wrote and published translations and commentaries for texts celebrated in India but hardly known elsewhere, such as the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' (''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'') and the ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'', thereby making those texts accessible in English for the first time. In all, he wrote more than eighty books. |
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==Biography== |
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During his spreading of Krishna consciousness, his Society, ISKCON, came to be labeled a destructive [[cult]] in America and [[Europe]]. Although court cases rejected claims of cultic [[brainwashing]] and recognized ISKCON as representing a bona fide spiritual tradition, in some places the “cult” label and image have persisted. Prabhupada's work, views, and mission have been both criticized and praised, but his teachings and the Society he established continue to be influential. |
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===Early life=== |
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Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada was born as Abhay Charan De on 1 September 1896 in [[Calcutta]], India.<ref name="Info" /> He was also called Nandulāl. His father was Gour Mohan De, who worked as a cloth merchant, and his mother was Rajani De.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Gosvāmī |first=Satsvarūpa Dāsa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_GkZAkxYOEC |title=Prabhupada: Your Ever Well-Wisher |date=December 2003 |publisher=Satsvarupa dasa Goswami |isbn=978-91-7149-469-6 }}</ref> Consistent with Bengali traditions, Abhay Charan's parents invited an astrologer to predict his horoscope.<ref name=":1" /> The astrologer professed to De's family that later in his life, Abhay would become "a great exponent of religion."<ref name=":1" /> Abhay grew up in a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnav]] home and his father was devote in his spiritual practices.<ref name=":1" /> Gaur Mohan regularly took Abhay to the Radha-Govinda temple as a child. Later in life, Prabhupad fondly remembers the [[murti]]s of that temple.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Early life (1896–1922) == |
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Abhay Charan studied at the [[Scottish Church College]].<ref name="Info" /> During his first year, his family arranged for him to be married to Radharani Datta.<ref name=":1" /> Until completing his fourth year in college, Abhay lived with his family and Radharani lived with hers.<ref name=":1" /> In 1920, Abhay chose not to accept his graduation diploma after completing his fourth year, in support of the national movement occurring in India at the time.<ref name=":1" /> The national movement advocated for national schools and self government, in opposition to British rule of India.<ref name=":1" /> |
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Abhay Charan De was born in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] (now Kolkata), [[India]], on September 1, 1896, the day after [[Krishna Janmashtami|Janmashtami]] (the birth anniversary of [[Krishna]]).{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}} His parents, Gour Mohan De and Rajani De, named him Abhay Charan, meaning “one who is fearless, having taken shelter of Lord Krishna’s lotus feet”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=22}} Following Indian tradition, Abhay’s father invited to the house an astrologer, who calculated the child’s horoscope. The astrologer predicted that at the age of seventy Abhay would cross the ocean,{{sfn|Chryssides|1999|p=171}} become a famous religious teacher, and open 108 [[Hindu temple|temples]] around the world.{{sfn|Bhat|2004|p=61}} |
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Abhay was raised in a religious family belonging to the ''[[Suvarna Banik|suvarna-vanik]]'' mercantile community. His parents were [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnavas]], or followers of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], who taught that Krishna is the [[Svayam Bhagavan|Supreme Personality]] and that [[Bhakti|pure love]] for Krishna is the highest attainment.{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=74}}{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=33}} |
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After completing his education, Abhay started working at Bose's Laboratory as a department manager in Calcutta, India.<ref name=":1" /> |
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Gour Mohan was a middle-income merchant and had his own fabric and clothing store{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=34}}. He was related to the rich and aristocratic Mullik mercantile family,{{sfn|Chryssides|1999|p=171}} who had been trading in gold and salt for centuries.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=34}} |
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===Spirituality === |
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In 1922, Abhay Charan met [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]] (1874-1937) in Kolkata.<ref name="Hare_Krishna_Mandir">{{cite web |title=Srila Prabhupada Biography |url=https://www.hkmjaipur.org/prabhupada/biography/ |website=Hare Krishna Mandir |publisher=Sri Sri Krishna Balaram Mandir |access-date=27 July 2023 }}</ref> In 1933, in [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]], he took initiation into the faith from Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati and was named Abhay Charan Aravinda.<ref name=":0" /> |
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Opposite the De house was a temple of [[Radha Krishna|Radha-Krishna]] that for a century and a half had been supported by the Mullik family.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=34}} Every day, young Abhay, accompanied by his parents or servants, attended temple services.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=34}} |
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In 1944, he started the publication called ''[[Back to Godhead]]'',<ref name="hk34" /><ref name="SDGPRA1">{{Harvnb|Goswami|1984|loc=p. xviii}}</ref> for which he was writer, designer, publisher, editor, copy editor and distributor.<ref name="SDG5">{{Harvnb|Goswami|2002|loc=Vol. 1 Chapter 5}}</ref> He was asked to spread the message of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] in the English language.<ref name="SDGPRA">{{Harvnb|Goswami|1984|loc=p. xv}}</ref> In 1947, the Gaudiya Vaishnava Society gave him the title ''Bhaktivedanta'', (''{{IAST|[[bhakti]]-[[vedānta]]}}'').<ref>A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami]] (1998) ''The secrets of transcendental love'', {{ISBN|0-89213-273-6}}, p. 73: "The spiritual harmony of knowledge and devotion is well expressed in the phrase ''bhakti-vedānta''"</ref> In the 1960s, after founding ISKCON, became known by the honorific ''[[Prabhupad (disambiguation)|Prabhupāda]]''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Aparna |last=Chattopadhyay |title=Pearls of Spiritual Wisdom |publisher=Pustak Mahal, India |year=2004 |page=37 |isbn=81-223-0858-9 }}</ref> |
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At the age of six, Abhay organized a likeness of the “chariot festival”, or [[Ratha Yatra|Ratha-yatra]], the huge [[Vaishnavism|''Vaishnava'']] festival held annually in the city of [[Puri]] in [[Odisha]].{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=35}} For this purpose, Abhay persuaded his father to obtain for him a scaled-down copy of the massive chariot on which the form of [[Jagannath|Jagannatha]] (Krishna as “Lord of the universe”) rides in procession in Puri.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=35}} Decades later, after going to [[United States|America]], Abhay would bring Ratha-yatra festivals to the West.{{sfn|Ravindra Svarupa Dasa|1985|pp=69-70}} |
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From 1950 onwards, he lived at the medieval Radha-Damodar [[mandir]] in the holy town of [[Vrindavan]], where he began his commentary and translation work of the [[Sanskrit]] work [[Bhagavata Purana]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles S. J. |last=White |title=A Catalogue of Vaishnava Literature on Microfilms in the Adyar Library |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |year=2004 |isbn=81-208-2067-3}}</ref> His [[guru]], Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, had always encouraged him to publish books,<ref name="SDG4RK">{{Harvnb|Goswami|2002|loc=Vol.1 Chapter 4}} "''{{IAST|Āmār icchā chila kichu bai karānā}}: ''"Standing by [[Rādhā-kuṇḍa|{{IAST|Rādhā-kuṇḍa}}]] and beholding his spiritual master, Abhay felt the words deeply enter his own life – "If you ever get money, print books."</ref> referring to the need for the literary presentation of the Vaishnava culture.<ref name="SDG4">{{Harvnb|Goswami|2002|loc=Vol. 1 Chapter 4}}</ref> |
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=== Education (1916–1920) === |
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Swami also lived at [[Gaudiya Matha]] at [[Mathura]], where he wrote and edited the ''{{IAST|Gauḍīya Patrikā}}'' magazine. While there he donated the statue of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] which stands on the altar beside those of [[Radha Krishna]] (named ''Śrī Śrī Rādhā Vinodavihārījī''). In September 1959, he was initiated as a ''[[sannyasa|sannyasi]]'' by his friend [[Bhakti Prajnana Keshava]] and was given the name ''[[Swami]]''. He published the first book of ''Bhagavata Purana''.<ref name="SDGm">{{Harvnb|Goswami|2002|loc=Vol.1 Chapter ''This momentous hour of need''}}</ref> |
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Though Abhay’s mother wanted Abhay to go to [[London]] to study law,{{sfn|Mitchiner|1992|p=146}} his father rejected the idea, fearing Abhay would be negatively influenced by [[Western culture|Western society]] and acquire bad habits.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}} In 1916 Abhay began his studies at [[Scottish Church College]], a prestigious school in Calcutta founded by [[Alexander Duff (missionary)|Alexander Duff]], a [[Christian mission|Christian missionary]].{{sfn|Emmott|1965|p=160}}{{efn|After the unification of the Church of Scotland in 1929, the institution became known as Scottish Church College. "Sen, Asit and John Abraham. Glimpses of college history, 2008 (1980). Retrieved on 2009-10-03" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20091222083113/http://scottishchurch.ac.in/College%20History02.pdf}} |
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===Mission to the West=== |
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{{main|International Society for Krishna Consciousness}} |
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[[File:Palaceanddevotees 1982.jpg|thumb|[[Prabhupada's Palace of Gold]] in [[West Virginia]], in 1982]] |
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Swami was the first Hindu preacher to take advantage of the removal of [[National Origins Formula|national quotas]] by the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|1965 Immigration Act]] of the United States.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jones|2007|p=xxxvi}}</ref> In July 1966, he founded the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON) in [[New York City]].<ref name="Srivatsa" /> He defended the name, arguing that ''Krishna'' included all other forms and concepts of God.<ref name="ex122">{{Harvnb|Ekstrand|Bryant|2004|pp=120–122}}</ref> In 1967, a centre was started in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="Vasan">{{Harvnb|Vasan|Lewis|2005|p=128}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=22}}</ref> He travelled throughout the United States with his disciples, popularising the movement through street chanting (''[[sankirtana]]''), book distribution and public speeches. [[George Harrison]] of [[The Beatles]] produced a recording with some of the devotees in London and helped establish the [[Radha Krisna Temple]] in that city.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=23}}</ref> |
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=== Marriage and family === |
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Over the following years, his role as preacher and leader of the Krishna consciousness movement took him around the world several times setting up temples and communities in other countries.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|title=Hinduism and modernity|publisher=Blackwell Pub|year=2003|isbn=0-631-20862-3|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|page=178|author=Smith, David Nichol}}</ref> By the time of his death in [[Vrindavan]] in 1977, ISKCON had become an internationally known expression of [[Vaishnavism]].<ref name="Vasan" /> |
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[[File:1924 ALL BP807 1 Lilamrita-1 photo 12-TangoDrum Full.tif|left|thumb|Abhay Charan De (seated, left) with his wife Radharani (standing), father Gour Mohan (seated, center), and other family members. (1924)|280x280px]]In 1918, while in college, Abhay, as arranged by his father, married Radharani Datta, also from an aristocratic family.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}}{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=35}}{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=76}} They had five children over the course of their marriage.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=33}} After graduation from college, Abhay began a career in pharmaceuticals{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=24}} and later opened his own pharmaceutical company in [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1989|p=50}} |
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Through his mission, he followed and preached the teachings of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] and introduced [[bhakti yoga]] to an international audience.<ref name="Smith" /><ref name="translation" /> Within Gaudiya Vaishnavism this was viewed as the fulfilment of a long time mission to introduce Caitanya Mahaprabhu's teachings to the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=5}}</ref> |
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=== Gandhi’s movement === |
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Beginning his public preaching mission in India, he founded the League of Devotees in [[Jhansi]] in 1953.<ref>[http://www.prabhupadaconnect.com/League_of_Devotees.html League of Devotees article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221040906/http://www.prabhupadaconnect.com/League_of_Devotees.html |date=21 December 2007 }} prabhupadaconnect.com</ref> On his return to India in 1971, he oversaw the construction of temples in [[Mumbai]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=27}}</ref> [[Mayapur]] and [[Vrindavan]]. He started a chain of [[ISKCON schools]]. |
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Abhay grew up while India was under [[British Raj|British rule]], and like many other youth his age he was attracted to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[non-cooperation movement]]. In 1920 Abhay graduated from college with a specialization in English, philosophy, and economics.{{sfn|Melton|1992|p=233}} He successfully passed the final exams, but as a sign of opposition to British rule he refused to take part in the graduation ceremony and receive a diploma.{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=76}}{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}} |
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Swami died on 14 November 1977 at the age of 81, in Vrindavan, India. His body was buried in [[Krishna Balaram Mandir]] in Vrindavan.<ref name="Info"/> |
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== |
== Midlife (1922–1965) == |
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In 1922, while still in college, Abhay was persuaded by a friend, Narendranath Mullik,{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=34}} to meet with [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]] (1874-1937), a Vaishnava scholar and teacher, the founder of the [[Gaudiya Math]], a spiritual institution for spreading the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}} (the word “[[Matha|''math'']]” denotes a monastic or missionary center).{{sfn|Valpey|2006|p=97}} Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati was continuing the work of his father, [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur]] (1838-1914). Bhaktivinoda regarded Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s teachings as the highest form of [[theism]], intended not for any one religion or nation but for all humanity.{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=24}} |
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===Slavery=== |
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When the meeting took place, Bhaktisiddhanta said to Abhay, “You are an educated young man. Why don’t you take the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and spread it in English?”{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=66}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013|pp=102-103}}{{sfn|Rochford|1985|p=10}} But Abhay, according to his own later account, argued that India first needed to become independent before anyone would take Chaitanya’s message seriously — an argument Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati defeated.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=41}} Convinced, Abhay accepted the instruction to spread the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in English, and it was in pursuance of this order from Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati that he later traveled to New York.{{sfn|Judah|1974|pp=40-41}} Many years later he recalled: “I immediately accepted him as spiritual master. Not formally, but in my heart”.{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=80}} |
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Swami said that black people should remain in bondage. |
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=== The Gaudiya Math and initiation (1933) === |
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<blockquote>The blacks were slaves. They were under control. And since you have given them equal rights they are disturbing, most disturbing, always creating a fearful situation, uncultured and drunkards. What training they have got? They have got equal rights? It is best, to keep them under control as slaves but give them sufficient food, sufficient cloth, not more than that. Then they will be satisfied.<ref name="Bryant"/></blockquote> |
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After meeting Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur in 1922, Abhay had little contact with the Gaudiya Math until 1928, when ''[[Sannyasa|sannyasis]]'' (renounced, itinerant preachers) from the Math came to open a center in [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]], where Abhay and his family were living.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=131}} Abhay became a regular visitor, contributed funds, and brought important people to the lectures of the Math’s ''sannyasis''. In 1932 he visited Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in the holy town of [[Vrindavan]], and in 1933, when Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati came to Allahabad to lay the cornerstone for a new temple, Abhay received ''[[diksha]]'' (spiritual initiation) from him and was given the name Abhay Charanaravinda.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=22}}{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=131}} |
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Over the next three years, whenever he was able to visit Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in Calcutta{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=71-72}} or Vrindavan,{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=86}} Abhay Charanaravinda would carefully hear from his spiritual master.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=65-66, 69}} In 1935 Abhay Charanaravinda moved for business to [[Mumbai|Bombay]]{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=77-78}} and then in 1937 back to Calcutta.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=77-78; 93}} In both places he assisted other members of the Gaudiya Math by donating money, leading ''[[Kirtan|kirtans]]'', lecturing, writing, and bringing others to the Math. At the end of 1936 he visited Vrindavan, where he again met Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur, who told him, “If you ever get money, print books”{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=35}} — an instruction that would inform his life’s work. |
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===Shudras=== |
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Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur, two weeks before his death on January 1, 1937, wrote a letter to Abhay Charanaravinda urging him to teach Gaudiya Vaishnavism in English. {{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=25}}{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=81}}{{sfn|Knott|1986|p=28}}{{sfn|Melton|1991|p=449}}. After Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur passed away, the unified mission of the Gaudiya Math split,{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=2}} and a battle for power broke out between his senior [[Guru–shishya tradition|disciples]].{{sfn|Nye|2001|p=10}} Although Abhay Charanaravinda continued to serve with other disciples of his spiritual master and wrote articles for their publications, he kept clear of the political struggles.{{sfn|Nye|2001|p=10}}{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=92}} |
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A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada has been criticized for statements he has made in relation to a person's caste.<ref name="Bryant" /> He has commented extensively on [[shudra]]s, saying, "shudras have no brain."<ref name="Bryant" /> Nevertheless, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada has also provided reason to respect shudras, stating, "anyone who knows the science of Krishna should be accepted as spiritual master, regardless of any material so-called qualifications, such as rich or poor, man or woman, or brahmana or shudra."<ref name="Bryant" /> |
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=== “Bhaktivedanta” title (1939) === |
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===Hitler and Jews=== |
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In 1939, elders in the Gaudiya community honored Abhay Charanaravinda with the title “Bhaktivedanta”. In the title, ''[[bhakti]]'' means “devotion”, and ''[[vedanta]]'' means “the culmination of Vedic knowledge”.{{sfn|Rahul Peter Das|1998}} Thus the honorary title acknowledged his scholarship and devotion.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=22}} |
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Swami mentioned Hitler to provide an example of a notorious villain, comparing him to Vedic demons, and using the term "hero" to describe one who has many gifts but squanders them for evil purposes: |
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=== ''Back to Godhead'' magazine (1944) === |
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<blockquote>Sometimes he becomes a great hero -- just like [[Hiranyakashipu]] and [[Kamsa]] or, in the modern age, [[Napoleon]] or [[Hitler]]. The activities of such men are certainly very great, but as soon as their bodies are finished, everything else is finished.<ref name="Bryant"/></blockquote> |
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In an effort to fulfill the order of his guru, in 1944 A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta began publishing ''[[Back to Godhead]]'', an English fortnightly [[magazine]] presenting the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=26}}{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=36}}{{sfn|Knott|1986|p=28}} He singlehandedly wrote, edited, financed, published, and distributed the magazine,{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=14}}{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=104‒105}} today still published and distributed by his followers.{{sfn|Eck|1979}}{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=92}} |
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=== Accepting ''vanaprastha'' === |
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He held Jews to be responsible for [[Holocaust]]: |
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In 1950 A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta accepted the [[Vānaprastha|vanaprastha ashram]] (the traditional retired order of life), and went to live in the Indian holy town of Vrindavan, regarded as the site of Krishna’s ''[[Lila (Hinduism)|Lila]]'' (divine pastimes),{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=131}} although continuing to commute to [[Delhi]] on occasion.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=37}} In [[Mathura]], adjoining Vrindavan, he wrote for and edited the ''Gauḍīya Patrikā'' magazine published by his godbrother{{efn|A term used in the [[Gaudiya Math]] and [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] for denoting [[Guru–shishya tradition|disciples]] of the same ''[[Diksha|diksha-guru]]''.}} [[Bhakti Prajnan Keshava|Bhakti Prajnana Kesava Goswami]].{{sfn|Greene|2017|p=51}} |
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<blockquote>Therefore Hitler killed these Jews. They were financing against Germany. Otherwise he had no enmity with the Jews... And they were supplying. They want interest money -- "Never mind against our country." Therefore Hitler decided, "Kill all the Jews."<ref name="Bryant"/></blockquote> |
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=== Forming “The League of Devotees” (1952) === |
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In 1952, A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta attempted to set up organized spiritual activities in the central Indian city of [[Jhansi]], where he started “The League of Devotees”{{sfn|Greene|2016|p=48}}{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=27}} — only to see the organization collapse two years later.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=36}} |
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===Women=== |
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{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=163-164}} |
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=== Taking ''sannyasa'' (1959) === |
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A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada was known to be "kind and accommodating" to his female disciples, but much of his literary work, conversations, and lectures contradict his actions.<ref name="Bryant" /> Prabhupada has made negative remarks about women, addressing topics such as adulteration, prostitution, women's lesser intelligence, and women's need for dependence on men.<ref name="Bryant" /> Prabhupada has said that "women in general should not be trusted"<ref name="Bryant" /><ref name="Rochford" /> and "women are generally not very intelligent,"<ref name="Bryant" /> among other statements. After studying Prabhupada's life, some scholars have argued that balancing religious beliefs and traditions at a given time and place can result in mixed interpretations of events.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=Tamal Krishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IcsWDAAAQBAJ |title=A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti: Essential Teachings of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada |date=26 July 2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979663-2 }}</ref> Although he has received negative attention for his statements about women, he has also received admiration for making the philosophy and practice of the Hare Krishna movement available to women and men equally, which was not commonly seen prior.<ref name=":0" /> |
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[[File:Prabhupada's passport.jpg|alt=A black-and-white image of the photograph page of an old-looking Indian passport. |thumb|Prabhupada's [[Indian passport|passport]], issued for his journey to the United States. (1965)|left|360x360px]]On September 17, 1959,{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=37}} prompted by a dream of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati calling on him to accept ''sannyasa'' (renounced order of life), A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta formally entered ''sannyasa [[Āśrama (stage)|asrama]]'' from [[Bhakti Prajnan Keshava]] at his Keshavaji Gaudiya Math in [[Mathura]] and was given the name Bhaktivedanta Swami. Wishing to preserve the [[Diksha|initiatory name]] given him by Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, as a sign of humility and connection to his spiritual master he kept the initials “A. C”. before his ''sannyasa'' name. Now he was A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=131-132}} |
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===Evolution=== |
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=== Staying at the Radha Damodar temple (1962–1965) === |
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Swami was an advocate of [[Vedic creationism]] and referred to [[Charles Darwin]] and his followers as "rascals".<ref>Brown, Cheever. (2020). ''Asian Religious Responses to Darwinism Evolutionary Theories in Middle Eastern, South Asian, and East Asian Cultural Contexts''. Springer. p. 122. {{ISBN|9783030373405}}</ref> He disputed [[evolution]], and claimed that: |
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From 1962 to 1965 Bhaktivedanta Swami stayed in Vrindavan at the historic [[Radha Damodar Temple, Vrindavan|Radha-Damodar temple]]. There he began the task of translating from ''[[Sanskrit]]'' into English and [[Bhashya|commenting]] on the eighteen-thousand-verse [[Bhagavata Purana|''Srimad-Bhagavatam'']] (Bhagavata Purana), {{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=67}} the foundational text of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|p=74}} With great effort and struggle, he finally succeeded to translate, produce, raise funds for, and print the first of its twelve [[Canto|cantos]], in three volumes.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=249-256}} |
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<blockquote>Darwin's theory stating that no human beings existed from the beginning but that humans evolved after many, many years is simply nonsensical.<ref name="Bryant1"/></blockquote> |
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=== Journey to the United States (1965) === |
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=== Religion === |
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Swami said: |
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[[File:MS Jaladuta, 1961.jpg|thumb|280x280px|The ''Jaladuta.'' (1961]] |
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{{blockquote|Actually, it doesn't matter – Krishna or Christ – the name is the same. The main point is to follow the injunctions of the Vedic scriptures that recommend chanting the name of God in this age.<ref name="Ssr1">{{Harvnb|Bhaktivedanta Swami|2003|loc=}}</ref>}} |
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It was at this time also, after accepting ''sannyasa'', that Bhaktivedanta Swami began planning to travel to America to fulfill his spiritual master’s desire to spread Chaitanya’s teachings in the West.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=132}}{{sfn|Selengut|1996}} |
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To leave India, Bhaktivedanta Swami had many hurdles to overcome: He needed a sponsor in America, official approvals in India, and of course a ticket for his travel. After significant difficulties he managed to secure the needed sponsorship and approvals,{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=67}} and at last he approached one of his well-wishers, [[Sumati Morarjee]], the head of the [[Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd.|Scindia Steam Navigation Company]], to ask for free passage to America on one of her cargo ships.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|pp=37-38}} Because of his age, she at first tried to dissuade him:{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=37}} “I said to him, ‘Swamiji, don’t go there. You are too old to go, and it will be too cold for you.’ I said, ‘Are you crazy? Old man, you are going to die! Who will look after you? What will you do there?’”{{sfn|Morarjee|2017}} |
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Other typical expressions present a different perspective, where he pointed out that "today I may be a [[Hindu]], but tomorrow I may become a [[Christians|Christian]] or [[Muslim]]. In this way faiths can be changed, but [[dharma]] is a natural sequence, a natural occupation or a connection and it can not be changed, because it is permanent, according to him".<ref name="Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=25"/> While the ISKCON theology of [[personal god]] is close to Christian theology, both personal and monotheistic, being a preacher of [[bhakti]] and a missionary he sometimes would add that "already many Christians have tasted the nectar of divine love of the holy name and are dancing with ''[[karatalas]]'' (hand-cymbals) and ''[[mridanga]]s'' (drums)".<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=6}}</ref> |
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[[File:Prabhupadai-handwrite.jpg|left|thumb|August 31, 1965. After Prabhupada undergoes a heart attack onboard the ''Jaladuta'', for five days his diary has no entries. He then writes, “Passed over a great crisis on the struggle for life and death”.{{sfn|Prabhupada|1965|p=26}}|280x280px]] |
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His approach to modern knowledge was similar to that of sectarian [[Orthodox Judaism]], where the skills and technical knowledge of modernity are encouraged, but the values rejected. "Whatever our engagement is, by offering the result to Krishna we become Krishna conscious".<ref name="char">{{cite web |url=http://www.iskcon.com/icj/contributors.html#Selengut |title=Charisma and Religious Innovation: Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON |publisher=[[ISKCON Communications Journal]] |access-date=31 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516204151/http://www.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html#Selengut |archive-date=16 May 2008 |url-status = dead}} (self published)</ref> Similar to many traditional religions, he considered sexuality and spirituality as conflicting opposites.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=224}}</ref> |
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But finally she relented and granted him a ticket on a [[Cargo ship|freighter]], the ''Jaladuta.'' Bhaktivedanta Swami began the 35-day journey to America on August 13, 1965, at the age of 69.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=277}}{{sfn|Sardella|2019|p=82}} |
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He took with him little more than a suitcase, an umbrella, some [[Cereal|dry cereal]], forty [[Indian rupee|Indian rupees]] (about seven US dollars), and two hundred three-volume sets of his translation of the first canto of ''Srimad-Bhagavatam''.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1998|p=186}}{{sfn|Gallagher|Willsky-Ciollo|2021|p=299}}{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=10}}{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002}} |
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===Other=== |
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After surviving two [[Myocardial infarction|heart attacks]] during his maritime journey,{{sfn|Rosen|2007|p=12}} Bhaktivedanta Swami finally arrived at the [[Boston Harbor]] on September 17, 1965, and then continued on to [[New York City]].{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=281}} |
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Swami rejected reports of the [[Apollo 11|1969 Moon landing]] citing his unwillingness to accept that no living beings were found in the Moon.<ref name="Bryant1">{{cite book | last1=Bryant | first1=E. | last2=Ekstrand | first2=M. | title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-231-50843-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC | pages=113–125 | access-date=24 February 2023 | archive-date=22 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165940/https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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== Later years (1965-1977) == |
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[[File:Srila Prabhupada Room at Radha Damodar Mandir in Vrindavan.jpg|alt=Srila Prabhupada Room at Radha Damodar Mandir in Vrindavan|thumb| Statue of Prabhupada at Radha Damodar Mandir in [[Vrindavan]]]] |
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=== Beginnings in New York City === |
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[[File:Prabhupadasamadhi.jpg|thumb|228x228px|[[Samadhi]] of Swami in [[Vrindavan]].]] |
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A number of ''[[Samādhi#Samadhi as mausoleum|samadhi]]s'' or shrines to Prabhupada were constructed by the members of ISKCON, with those in Mayapur and Vrindavan in India being notable. [[Prabhupada's Palace of Gold]], built by the [[New Vrindavan]] community in 1979, was intended to be a residence for Prabhupada, but has now developed into a tourist attraction.<ref name="ShinnBrom1987q">{{Harvnb|Shinn|Bromley|1987|p=124}}</ref> |
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Bhaktivedanta Swami had no support or acquaintances in the United States except the Agarwals, an Indian-American family, who, although strangers to him, had agreed to sponsor his visa.{{sfn|Selengut|1996}} Upon reaching New York, he took a bus to the town of [[Butler, Pennsylvania]], where the Agarwals lived. In Butler he delivered lectures to different groups at venues like the local [[YMCA]].{{sfn|Ritts|1965}}{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2007|p=17}} |
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In 1996 the [[Government of India]] issued a commemorative stamp<ref> |
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{{cite web| url=http://prabhupada.krishna.com/shrines-and-memorials | title=prabhupada.krishna.com| website=www.krishna.com| access-date=8 January 2014| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130326020806/http://prabhupada.krishna.com/shrines-and-memorials| archive-date= 26 March 2013 |url-status = live}} see "Commemorative Stamp" section, including image</ref> and in 2021, a Rs 125 commemorative coin in his honour.<ref>{{cite news |title=PM Modi releases special commemorative coin on ISKCON founder's 125th birth anniversary |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-releases-special-commemorative-coin-on-iskcon-founders-125th-birth-anniversary/articleshow/85835377.cms |newspaper=[[Times of India]] |date=1 September 2021 |access-date=13 September 2021 |archive-date=13 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913032001/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-releases-special-commemorative-coin-on-iskcon-founders-125th-birth-anniversary/articleshow/85835377.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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After a month in Butler, he returned by bus to New York City.{{sfn|Selengut|1996}} He stayed at various places — sometimes in a windowless room,{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=301}} sometimes a [[Bowery]] loft{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=343-344}} — until with the help of early followers he found a place to stay in the [[Lower East Side]], where he converted a storefront curiosity shop with the serendipitous name “Matchless Gifts” into a small temple{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=36}} at 26 Second Avenue.{{sfn|Wheeler|1977|p=12}}{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=382}} {{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2007|p=29}}{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Zeller|2010|p=70}}{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Poling|Kenny|1986|p=7}} There he offered classes on the ''Bhagavad-gita'' and other [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] texts and held kirtan (group chanting) of the ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]]'': |
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<blockquote>''Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare<br> Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.''{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=391}} </blockquote> |
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[[File:Hare Krishna Tree.jpg|thumb|373x373px|The Hare Krishna Tree in [[Tompkins Square Park]], New York.]] |
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== Legacy == |
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After he and his followers held Hare Krishna kirtan one Sunday under a tree in nearby [[Tompkins Square Park]], [[The New York Times|''The New York Times'']] reported the event: “Swami’s Flock Chants in Park to Find Ecstasy; 50 Followers Clap and Sway to Hypnotic Music at East Side Ceremony”.{{sfn|Sikes|1966}} He slowly gained a following, mainly from young people of the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|60s counterculture]].{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}} |
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In 2023, [[Scottish Church College]] and The Bhaktivedanta Research Center has established an academic award in honor of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Memorial Award to keep alive the memory of Prabhupada's college life.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=এসি ভক্তিবেদান্ত স্বামী প্রভুপাদ মেমোরিয়াল এওয়ার্ড চালু হল {{!}} AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Memorial Award Has Been Launched |url=https://www.thewall.in/news/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-memorial-award-has-been-launched/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165943/https://www.thewall.in/news/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-memorial-award-has-been-launched/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 February 2023 |title=ভক্তি বেদান্ত স্বামী প্রভুপাদ মেমোরিয়াল এওয়ার্ড |url=https://www.banglaexpress.in/2023/02/28/68390.html |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=প্রথম শ্রেণীর অনলাইন বাংলা নিউজ পোর্টাল |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419105832/https://www.banglaexpress.in/2023/02/28/68390.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=deshersamay |date=28 February 2023 |title=AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Srila Prabhupada:ভক্তি বেদান্ত স্বামী প্রভুপাদ মেমোরিয়াল এওয়ার্ড |url=https://deshersamay.com/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-srila-prabhupada%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=Desher Samay |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165945/https://deshersamay.com/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-srila-prabhupada%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Statesman Dainik-Statesman epaper dated Mon, 27 Mar 23 |url=https://epaper.thestatesman.com/3680393/Dainik-Statesman/27TH-MARCH-2023#page/5/1 |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=epaper.thestatesman.com |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326202443/https://epaper.thestatesman.com/3680393/Dainik-Statesman/27TH-MARCH-2023#page/5/1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Desk |first=EBBS |date=26 March 2023 |title=সমাজ সেবায় দাগ কেটেছেন স্কটিশ চার্চ কলেজের অধ্যাপিকা, পেলেন ভক্তি বেদান্ত মেমরিয়াল পুরষ্কার |url=https://biswabanglasangbad.com/2023/03/26/vakti-bedanta-award-won-by-professor-of-scottish-church/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=বিশ্ব বাংলা সংবাদ |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165943/https://biswabanglasangbad.com/2023/03/26/vakti-bedanta-award-won-by-professor-of-scottish-church/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=tiyash |date=26 March 2023 |title=সমাজ সেবায় দাগ কেটেছেন স্কটিশ চার্চ কলেজের অধ্যাপিকা, পেলেন পুরস্কারও {{!}} Scottish Church College |url=https://www.thewall.in/news/scottish-church-college-professor-mousumi-manna-get-prize/ |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165946/https://www.thewall.in/news/scottish-church-college-professor-mousumi-manna-get-prize/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In contrast to the 60s countercultural lifestyle, he required of that in order to receive [[Diksha|spiritual initiation]] his followers had to vow to follow four “regulative principles”: no illicit sex (that is, sex outside of marriage), no eating of meat, fish, or eggs, no intoxicants (including drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, and even coffee and tea), and no gambling.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=13}}{{sfn|Rochford|2005|p=102}} New initiates also vowed to daily chant sixteen meditative “rounds” of the Hare Krishna 'mantra' (that is, to complete sixteen circuits of chanting the mantra on a 108-bead strand). During the first year in New York, he initiated nineteen people.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}} |
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In July 1966 he incorporated the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Gupta|1976|p=17}} |
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In December of 1966 he made a recording of Krishna kirtan (along with a brief explanatory talk) that took the form of an album entitled ''Krishna Consciousness'',{{sfn|Lavezzolli|2006|p=195}} released under the “Happening” record label. The record helped the early spread of what he called “the Hare Krishna movement”. {{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=376-379}}{{sfn|Satyaraja Dasa|2011}} |
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With his small band of followers in a little storefront, he was already sharing a vision of spreading “Krishna consciousness” around the world. He asked them to help — for example, by typing his manuscripts for the second canto of the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam''.{{sfn|Greene|2016|p=99}} After he completed his [[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|''Bhagavad-gita As It Is'']] (by mid January of 1967),{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=393}} he asked a new disciple to find a publisher for it.{{sfn|Greene|2016|p=148}} |
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Bhaktivedanta Swami personally taught his first followers to spread Krishna’s message, prepare food to offer to Krishna, collect donations, and chant the Hare Krishna ''maha-mantra'' (“great mantra”) on the streets.{{sfn|Daner|1976|p=17}} |
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=== San Francisco === |
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Srila Prabhupada's books are considered to be among his most significant contributions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1981|p=971}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.acbspn.com/reviews.htm| title=Scholars reviews of Srila Prabhupada's books| website=www.acbspn.com| access-date=31 May 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515205053/http://www.acbspn.com/reviews.htm| archive-date=15 May 2008|url-status = dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> During the final twelve years of his life, Prabhupada translated over sixty volumes of classic [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] scriptures (e.g. ''[[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'' and ''[[Srimad Bhagavatam]]'') into the English language.<ref name="Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=25">{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=25}}</ref> His ''[[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|Bhagavad-gītā As It Is]]'' was published by [[Macmillan Publishers]] in 1968 with an unabridged edition in 1972.<ref>[[Maheswar Neog]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=LhB4AAAAIAAJ&q=Macmillan Professor Maheswar Neog Felicitation Volume] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403233937/https://books.google.com/books?id=LhB4AAAAIAAJ&q=Macmillan |date=3 April 2023 }} (1990)</ref><ref>Bhaktivedanta Swami, A. C. (1968). ''The Bhagavad-gita As It Is'', first edition. [[New York City|New York]]: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://btg.krishna.com/macmillan-miracle|title=The Macmillan Miracle |
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|website=www.krishna.com|access-date=2 June 2008|last=Rosen|first=S|author-link=Satyaraja Dasa| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080606024529/http://www.krishna.com/en/node/1523| archive-date= 6 June 2008 |url-status = live}}</ref> It is now available in over sixty languages around the world with some of his other books available in over eighty different languages.<ref name = hk34>{{Harvnb|Cole|Dwayer|2007|p=34}}</ref><ref name="translation">{{cite web| url=http://www.bbt.info/files/languages/Books_in_Print_JUN06.pdf| title=The matrix of principal published translated works. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust offers a 2006 summary PDF file showing which books translated in which languages| publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] | access-date=30 May 2008| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528180745/http://www.bbt.info/files/languages/Books_in_Print_JUN06.pdf| archive-date=28 May 2008|url-status = dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> |
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{{main|Mantra Rock Dance}}[[File:Prabhupada's arrival in San Francisco 1967.jpg|thumb|alt= Allen Ginsberg accompanies the saffron-clad swami and a group of young followers in the airport lounge|[[Allen Ginsberg]] greeting A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami at the [[San Francisco International Airport|San Francisco airport]]. (January 1967)|280x280px]] |
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The [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] was established in 1972 to publish his works.<ref name="Srivatsa">{{Harvnb|Goswami et al.|1983|p=986}}</ref><ref name="ShinnBrom">{{Harvnb|Shinn|Bromley|1989|p=53}}</ref> |
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]In 1967 Bhaktivedanta Swami established a second center, in [[San Francisco]].{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=550}} The opening of the temple in the heart of the booming [[Hippie|hippie community]] of [[Haight-Ashbury]] attracted many new adherents and was a turning point in his movement’s history, marking the beginning of rapid growth.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=1}} To gain attention and raise funds, his disciples organized a two-hour concert with kirtan led by Bhaktivedanta Swami and rock performances by the [[Grateful Dead]] and other famous rock groups of the day.{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=79}} This “[[Mantra-Rock Dance|Mantra Rock Dance]]”, held at the popular [[Avalon Ballroom]], attracted some three thousand people{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=79}} and brought attention to the local Hare Krishna temple. One commentator dubbed it the “ultimate high of that era”.{{sfn|Greene|2006|p=139}} |
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[[File:1967 Mantra-Rock Dance Avalon poster.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Mantra-Rock Dance]] poster by Harvey W. Cohen (created December 1966).]] |
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In February 2014, ISKCON's news agency reported reaching a milestone of distributing over half a billion books authored by Swami since 1965.<ref name="Smullen">{{cite web | url = http://iskconnews.org/bbt-reaches-half-a-billion-books-distributed-since-1965,4286/ | title = BBT reaches half a billion books distributed since 1965 | access-date = 27 February 2014 | last = Smullen | first = Madhava | date = 12 February 2014 | website = ISKCON News | archive-date = 3 March 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140303235748/http://iskconnews.org/bbt-reaches-half-a-billion-books-distributed-since-1965,4286/ | url-status = live }}</ref> |
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Later that year, Bhaktivedanta Swami’s followers organized San Francisco’s first [[Ratha Yatra (Puri)|Ratha Yatra]], the festival he had celebrated as a child in imitation of the massive parade held annually in the Indian city of [[Puri]]. For this first San Francisco version, a [[flatbed truck]] with four pillars holding a canopy took the place of Puri’s three huge ornate wooden vehicles.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=699}} He would later establish this annual festival in major cities around the world,{{sfn|Gelberg|1989|pp=149-150}} with big vehicles —“chariots” — and thousands of people taking part. |
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At first Bhaktivedanta Swami’s followers referred to him as “the [[Swami]]”{{sfn|Mukunda Goswami|2011|p=352}} or “Swamiji”.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=12}} From mid-1968 onwards they called him “Prabhupada”, a respectful epithet that “enjoys currency with devotees and an increasing number of scholars”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=22}} |
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=== Great Britain and Europe === |
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===Bengali writings=== |
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* {{cite book |
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In 1968, Prabhupada asked three married couples among his disciples to open a temple in [[London]], [[England]]. Following his instructions, the disciples, dressed in their robes and ''[[Sari|saris]]'', began singing Hare Krishna regularly on London streets and at once attracted attention. Soon newspapers carried headlines like “Krishna Chant Startles London” and “Happiness is Hare Krishna”.{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}} |
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|title={{IAST|Gītār Gān}} |
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|language=bn |
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A further breakthrough came in December 1969 when the disciples managed to meet with members of the rock band the [[The Beatles|Beatles]], who were at the peak of their global fame.{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}} Even before then, [[George Harrison]] and [[John Lennon]] had gotten a copy of the maha-mantra recording released by Prabhupada and his students in New York and had begun singing Hare Krishna.{{sfn|Satyaraja Dasa|2011}}{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=195}} |
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|date=c. 1973 |
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[[File:1974 PAR B CT006213 adj.tif|thumb|Prabhupada with disciples in [[Paris]]. 1974]] |
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In August 1969, Harrison produced a [[The Radha Krsna Temple (album)#"Hare Krishna Mantra" single|single of the Hare Krishna mantra]], sung by the London disciples, and released it on [[Apple Records]].{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}}{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=195}} For the recording, the disciples called themselves “The Radha Krishna Temple”.{{sfn|Badman|Miles|2001|pp=350-351}} Harrison told a press conference convened by Apple that the Hare Krishna mantra was not a [[Pop music|pop song]] but an ancient mantra that awakened spiritual bliss in the hearts of people listening to and repeating it.{{sfn|Greene|2006|p=146}} Seventy thousand copies of the record sold on the first day.{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}} It rose to number 11 on the British charts,{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=195}} and Prabhupada’s students performed live four times on the BBC’s popular TV show [[Top of the Pops|''Top of the Pops'']].{{sfn|Beck|2007|p=459}} The record was also a success in [[Germany]], [[Holland]], [[France]], [[Sweden]], [[Yugoslavia]], and [[Czechoslovakia]] (as well as [[South Africa]] and [[Japan]]), and so the group was invited to perform in a number of European countries.{{sfn|Greene|2006|p=147}} |
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The next year, 1970, Harrison produced with Prabhupada’s disciples another hit single, “Govinda”, and in May 1971 the album ''[[The Radha Krsna Temple (album)|The Radha Krishna Temple]]''.{{sfn|Lavezzoli|2006|p=195}} In 1970, Harrison sponsored the publishing of the first volume of Prabhupada’s book ''[[Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead|Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead]]'',{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}}{{sfn|Greene|2006|p=195}} which relates the activities of Krishna's life as told in the tenth [[canto]] of the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam''. In 1973 Harrison donated a seventeen-acre estate known as [[Bhaktivedanta Manor|Piggots Manor]],{{sfn|Uncut|2013}} fifteen miles northwest of London. The Hare Krishna devotees converted this into a rural temple-ashram and renamed it [[Bhaktivedanta Manor]]{{sfn|Nye|2001|p=12}} in Prabhupada’s honor. |
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Once Prabhupada’s disciples had made a start in England, Prabhupada over the years visited England many times and from there traveled to Germany, France, [[Italy]], Sweden, [[Switzerland]], and [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]],{{sfn|Vanipedia|2024}} leading kirtans, [[Prana pratishtha|installing]] [[Murti|forms]] of Krishna in ISKCON temples, meeting religious and intellectual leaders and others keen to meet him, and guiding and encouraging his disciples.{{efn|Prabhupada’s travels to and from Europe and his programs there are described in ''Srila Prabhupada-lilamrita'', volumes 4 and 5.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002}}}} |
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=== Africa === |
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In 1970 Prabhupada made the first of several visits to [[Kenya]].{{sfn|Vanipedia|2024}} Although the disciples he had sent there had settled into doing spiritual programs for the local [[Indian diaspora|Indian]] people, Prabhupada insisted on doing programs meant for Africans. On one notable occasion in [[Nairobi]], when he was scheduled to do a program at an Indian [[Radha Krishna|Radha-Krishna]] temple in a mainly African area downtown, he ordered the doors opened to invite the local residents, so that the hall soon flooded with African people.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=1018}} Then he held ''kirtan'' and gave a talk. Prabhupada told his local leaders that this is what they should do: spread Krishna consciousness among the local African people.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=1018-1019}} Prabhupada also later visited [[Mauritius]] and South Africa{{sfn|Vanipedia|2024}} and sent his disciples to [[Nigeria]] and [[Zambia]].{{sfn|Karapanagiotis|2021|p=81}} |
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=== The Soviet Union === |
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[[File:Prabhupada in Moscow 1971.tif|thumb|280x280px|Prabhupada in front of [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] on [[Red Square]] in [[Moscow]]. (July 1972)]] |
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Prabhupada’s visit to [[Moscow]] from June 20 to June 25, 1971 marked the beginning of Krishna consciousness in the [[Soviet Union]].{{sfn|Anderson|1986|p=316}} During his five days in Moscow, Prabhupada managed to meet only two Soviet citizens: [[:ru:Котовский, Григорий Григорьевич|Grigory Kotovsky]], a professor of Indian and South Asian studies, and [[:ru:Пиняев, Анатолий Фёдорович|Anatoly Pinyaev]], a twenty-three-year-old Muscovite.{{efn|Kotovsky was the head of the Department of India and [[South Asia]] of the [[Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences|Institute of Oriental Studies]] of the [[Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union|USSR Academy of Sciences]].}} Pinyaev, who went on to become the first Soviet Hare Krishna devotee, met Prabhupada through the son of an Indian diplomat stationed in Moscow.{{sfn|Kotovsky|1997|p=109-114}} Prabhupada’s assistant gave Pinyaev a copy of Prabhupada’s [[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|''Bhagavad-gita'',]] which Pinyaev was able to translate into Russian, copy, and then distribute [[Underground press|underground]] in the Soviet Union during [[Communism|Communist times]].{{sfn|Syamasundar Das|2017}} Pinyaev showed a great interest in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, accepted initiation from Prabhupada, and did much to ignite interest in Krishna consciousness in the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Anderson|1986|p=316}} Pinyaev was later imprisoned in [[Smolensk]] [[Psikhushka|Special Psychiatric Hospital]] and forcibly treated with drugs for his practice of Krishna consciousness.{{sfn|Anderson|1986|p=316}}{{sfn|Marzo|1986|p=7}} |
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=== India === |
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Having achieved some success in the West, in 1970 Prabhupada directed his attention especially to India, with the hope of turning India back toward her original spiritual sensibilities.{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=89}} He came back to India with a party of Western disciples{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=132}} — ten American ''sannyasis'' and twenty other devotees{{sfn|Brooks|1989|p=83}} — and for the next seven years focused much of his effort on establishing temples in [[Mumbai|Bombay]], Vrindavan, [[Hyderabad|Hyderabad,]] and a planned international headquarters in [[Mayapur]], [[West Bengal]] (the birthplace of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]).{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=132}} |
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By that time, Prabhupada saw, India had set a course towards [[Europeanisation|Europeanization]]{{sfn|Rosen|2007|p=12}} and sought to imitate the West. Therefore, the appearance on Indian soil of American and European Hare Krishna devotees who had rejected Western materialism and embraced Indian spiritual culture “caused nothing less than a sensation among the modernizing (i.e. [[Westernization|Westernizing]]) Indians, planting seeds for an authentic religious revival there”.{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=31}} |
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By the early 1970s, Prabhupada had established his movement’s American headquarters in [[Los Angeles]] and its world headquarters in Mayapur.{{sfn|Melton|1992|p=238}} |
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=== Around the world === |
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[[File:A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami travels.webm|thumb|360x360px|Timeline of Prabhupada's travels around the world (1965‒1977){{sfn|Vanipedia|2024}}|left]] |
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In Latin America, Prabhupada visited [[Mexico]] and [[Venezuela]]. In Asia he visited [[Hong Kong]], [[Japan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Philippines|the Philippines]]. He also spent time in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Fiji]]. In the [[Middle East]] he visited [[Iran]].{{sfn|Vanipedia|2024}} Among the places he sent disciples to spread Krishna consciousness was [[China]].{{sfn|Karapanagiotis|2021|p=81}} |
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Early in the movement, Prabhupada had guided his students personally, but later, as the movement rapidly expanded, he relied more on letters and his secretaries.{{sfn|Daner|1976|pp=17-18}} By giving his students instructions, advice, and encouragement, he ensured a “strong paternal presence” in their lives.{{sfn|Daner|1976|p=17}} He wrote more than six thousand letters, many now collected and kept at the Bhaktivedanta Archives.{{sfn|Green|2017|p=227}} Besides receiving reports of accomplishments, via correspondence he also had to deal — almost daily — with setbacks, perplexities, quarrels, and failures. He tried to correct them as much as possible and kept on advancing his movement.{{sfn|Greene|2017|p=227}} |
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Wherever he was, he took an hour-long early-morning walk, which became a time for disciples to ask questions and receive personal guidance.{{sfn|Greene|2017|p=207}} On returning from his walk, he lectured daily on the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'',{{sfn|Naughtie|2010|p=11}} often reading from the portion of the manuscript he was working on. Every afternoon he met with disciples or with dignitaries and leaders from various parts of his mission. |
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[[File:Srila Prabhupada samadhi in Vrindavan.jpg|alt=An ornate, elaborate marble building with a faceted dome and arched staircase.|thumb|Prabhupada's ''[[Samadhi (shrine)|samadhi]]'' in [[Vrindavan]], India.|280x280px]] |
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Traveling constantly to lecture and tend to his disciples, Prabhupada circled the world fourteen times in ten years.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=178}} He opened more than one hundred temples and dozens of farm communities and restaurants, as well as ''[[Gurukula|gurukulas]]'' (boarding schools) for ISKCON's children.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=4}} He initiated nearly five thousand disciples.{{sfn|Rochford|2005|p=103}} |
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=== Death (1977) === |
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On November 14, 1977, at the age of 81, after a long illness, Prabhupada passed away in his room at the [[ISKCON Temple, Vrindavan|Krishna Balaram Mandir,]]{{sfn|New York Times|1977|p=2}} the temple he had established in Vrindavan, India.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=184}}{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=14}}{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=181}} His burial site is located in the courtyard of the temple beneath a ''[[Samadhi (shrine)|samadhi]]'' (memorial shrine) built by his followers.{{sfn|De Backer|2016|p=13}} |
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=== Succession === |
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In 1970 Prabhupada established a Governing Body Commission (GBC), then consisting of twelve leading disciples, to oversee ISKCON’s activities around the world and to serve as ISKCON’s ultimate managing authority.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=181}} In 1977, four months before his departure, he appointed eleven senior disciples to perform spiritual initiations on his behalf while he was ill.{{sfn|Burt|2020|pp=88-90}} |
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Despite the measures Prabhupada took to organize the management of his movement, his death in November 1977 caused a crisis of authority in ISKCON that destabilized the organization and became a turning point in its development.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|p=14}}{{sfn|Rochford|1985|p=8}}{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2007|p=72}} The succession process was beset by conflicts, with disagreements persisting for decades.{{sfn|Burt|2023|pp=51-54}}{{sfn|Burt|2020|pp=86-99}} Nonetheless, by 2023 nearly one hundred disciples and grand-disciples in succession from Prabhupada were serving as initiating gurus in his branch of the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineage.{{sfn|GBC|2024}} |
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== Philosophy and teachings == |
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Within [[Indian philosophy|Eastern systems]], spiritual lineages are integral to each tradition, and a teacher is mandated to maintain theological fidelity by transmitting knowledge as given in the lineage.{{sfn|Burt|2023|p=12}} Prabhupada comes in the [[Brahma Sampradaya|Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya lineage]], which traces back to the fifteenth-century saint and mystic [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1533){{sfn|Burt|2023|p=1}} and the thirteenth-century theologian [[Madhvacharya]] (1238–1317), and further back, its teachings say, to the beginnings of creation.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=23}} This lineage (''[[sampradaya]]'') follows such texts as ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Srimad-Bhagavatam]]'', the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad-gita]]'', and the writings of Chaitanya’s disciples and their followers.{{sfn|Burt|2023|p=13}} Prabhupada’s extensive [[Bhashya|commentaries]] on the sacred texts follow those of [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Bhaktisiddhanta]], [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur|Bhaktivinoda]], and other traditional teachers, such as [[Baladeva Vidyabhushana]], [[Visvanatha Chakravarti|Vishvanatha Chakravarti]], [[Jiva Goswami]], Madhvacharya, and [[Ramanuja|Ramanujacharya]].{{sfn|Ravindra Svarupa Dasa|1985|pp=71-72}} |
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=== The Absolute Truth === |
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[[File:1973 PAR V CT005157 DRUM.tif|left|thumb|360x360px|Prabhupada talks with a [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|Catholic priest]] in [[Paris]]. (1973)]] |
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In accordance with the teachings of the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'', Prabhupada taught that the supreme truth, or Absolute Truth, is the one unlimited, undivided spiritual entity that is the source of all. That Absolute Truth, he taught, is realized in three phases: as ''[[Brahman]]'' (all-pervading impersonal oneness), as ''[[Paramatman|Paramatma]]'' (the aspect of [[God]] present within the heart of every living being), and as ''[[Bhagavan]]'', the [[Svayam Bhagavan|Supreme Personality of Godhead]]. Though the Absolute Truth is one, he taught, that one Absolute is progressively realized in these three features according to one’s level of spiritual advancement. In the initial stage the Absolute is realized as Brahman, in a more advanced stage as Paramatma, and at the most advanced stage as ''Bhagavan''.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=127, 131–132}}{{sfn|Schweig|2004|pp=15, 19}}{{sfn|Deadwyler|1989|p=66}} |
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=== Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead === |
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In the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'', and so in Prabhupada’s teachings, Krishna is seen as the original and supreme manifestation of Bhagavan{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=23}} – in [[Sanskrit]], ''svayam-bhagavan'', or the Supreme Personality of Godhead himself.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=142–145}} No one is equal to or greater than Krishna.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=132}} Brahman and Paramatma are partial realizations of Krishna.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=132}} The various [[Vishnu]] forms, such as [[Rama|Ramachandra]] and [[Narasimha|Narasimha,]] are “nondifferent” from Krishna; they are the same Personality of Godhead, appearing in different roles. But the form of Krishna is the original and the most complete form. In the [[Deva (Hinduism)#Important Devas|Hindu pantheon]], he taught, the gods other than the Vishnu forms are [[Demigod|demigods]] — that is, assistants of the Supreme Personality of Godhead.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=133–134}} |
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=== The energies of the Absolute === |
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If the Absolute Truth is one, this raises the question of how there can be diversity. If, as the ''[[Upanishads]]'' say, there is only the Absolute Truth and nothing else, we need some way to account for the existence of living beings, with all their differences, and the world, with all its many colors, forms, sounds, aromas, and so on. Prabhupada responds by referencing a statement from the ''Upanishads'' that the Absolute Truth has varied energies.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=135}}{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=45}} As a fire located in one place gives off heat and light throughout a room, the Absolute Truth fills the world with every sort of variety.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=40}} |
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=== Oneness and difference === |
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Prabhupada taught Chaitanya’s doctrine of ''[[Achintya Bheda Abheda|achintya bheda-abheda-tattva]]'', in which everything is seen as simultaneously, inconceivably one with the Absolute — that is, with Krishna — and yet different.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=135}}{{sfn|Gupta|2007|pp=45-55}}{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|pp=150-158}} By way of analogy, Prabhupada gives the example that heat is in one sense identical with the fire from which it emerges and yet the two are different — when sitting in a fire’s warmth, we are not burning in the fire itself.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=40}}{{sfn|Hayagriva Dasa|1970}} This “oneness and difference” accounts for the oneness of an Absolute Truth that includes limitless varieties.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=135}}{{sfn|Gupta|2007|pp=45-55}}{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|pp=150-158}} |
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=== The inferior and superior energies === |
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Among Krishna’s energies, Prabhupada taught, the ingredients of this world collectively belong to Krishna’s “inferior energy”{{sfn|Judah|1974|pp=50, 54}} — inferior in that, being inert matter, it lacks consciousness.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=134}}{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|p=95}} But superior to inert matter are the [[Jiva|conscious living beings]] (''jivas'') that belong to Krishna’s “superior energy”.{{sfn|Sooklal|1986|p=21}}{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|p=133}} |
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=== The predicament of the living being === |
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Because the living beings belong to Krishna’s “superior energy”, Prabhupada taught, they share in Krishna’s divine qualities, including [[Saccidānanda|knowledge, bliss, and eternality]] (''sat'', ''cit'', and ''ananda'').{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=134}}{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|p=133}} But because of contact with the “inferior energy” since time immemorial,{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=135–136}} the divine nature of the living beings has been covered, and subjecting the living beings in this world to ignorance, suffering, and repeated birth and death.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=135–137}} In each life the living beings struggle against birth and death, disease and old age.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=135}} While trying to control and enjoy the resources of nature, the living beings increasingly suffer from entanglement in nature’s complexities.{{sfn|Ravindra Svarupa Dasa|1993|pp=22–23}} |
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As spiritual beings, belonging to the “superior energy”, the living beings are different from their material bodies: the body may be male or female, young or old, white or black, American or Indian, but the living being within the body is beyond what he called these “material designations”.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=758}} Prabhupada phrased this understanding in a maxim he often used: “I am not this body”.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=238}}{{sfn|Jayadvaita Swami|2015|p=80}} |
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When we falsely identify with these bodies, he taught, we are under the influence of maya, or illusion. Only when this illusion is dispelled can the soul become liberated from material existence.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=135}} |
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=== ''Bhakti'' === |
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[[File:Yasomati-nandana (Sri Nama-kirtana).ogg|thumb|280x280px|Prabhupada sings a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ''[[bhajan]]'' (devotional song) by [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur]].]] |
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[[File:Hari Haraye Namah Krsna (Nama Sankirtana) by Narottama Dasa.ogg|thumb|280x280px|Prabhupada sings a Bengali ''bhajan'' by [[Narottama Dasa|Narottama Dasa Thakur]].]] |
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Prabhupada taught that the living beings can be freed from illusion, and from their entire material predicament, by recognizing that they are tiny but eternal parts of Krishna and that their natural engagement lies in serving Krishna, just as a hand serves the body. Dormant within every living being, Prabhupada taught, is an eternal loving relationship with that Absolute, or Krishna, and when that loving relationship is revived, the living being resumes its natural eternal and joyful life.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=62, 64}} This eternal service in devotion to Krishna, rendered by one freed from all material designation, is called ''[[bhakti]]''.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=132}} |
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One can begin practicing ''bhakti'', Prabhupada taught, even while in the earliest stages of spiritual life. In this way, ''bhakti'' is both the final end to be achieved and the means by which to achieve it. As a spiritual practice, ''bhakti'' is a powerful, transformative process that purifies the soul and enables it to see God directly.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=135}} |
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=== Impersonalism === |
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Prabhupada crusaded against what he called “impersonalism” — that is, the idea that ultimately the Supreme has no form, qualities, activities, or personal attributes. In this way he stood opposed to the teachings of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] (A.D. 788–820), who held that everything except Brahman is illusory, including the soul, the world, and God.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=140–141}} Before Prabhupada, Shankara’s system of thought, known as [[Advaita Vedanta|''Advaita Vedanta'']], had generally provided the framework for Western understandings of Hinduism,{{sfn|Baird|1987|p=105}} and the “steady procession of Hindu swamis” who came to America generally aligned themselves with Shankara’s [[Monism|monistic views]] and the idea of “the ultimate absorption of the self into an impersonal Reality or Brahman”.{{sfn|Judah|1974|p=19}} |
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But prominent Vaishnava philosophers from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries like [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] and [[Ramanuja]] had opposed Shankara’s views with personalistic understandings of [[Vedanta]]. Those teachers presented strong philosophical arguments criticizing Shankara’s “illusionism” (''mayavada''), his view that personal individuality, indeed all individuality, is illusory.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=140–141}}{{sfn|Basham|1983|pp=176–180}} Philosophers in the Gaudiya line such as, in the sixteenth century, [[Jiva Goswami]] had continued to argue formidably against impersonalism, which they regarded as ''the'' essential metaphysical misconception”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=120}} So Prabhupada strongly opposed impersonalistic views wherever he encountered them and asserted the eternal personal existence of the Absolute and of all living beings.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=140–141}} Where [[Buddhism]] shares ground with Shankara’s views by teaching that ultimately personality disintegrates, leaving nothing but a void ''[[nirvana]]'',{{sfn|Basham|1983|p=176}} Buddhism too came in for Prabhupada’s strong personalistic critique.{{sfn|Basham|1983|p=176}}{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=68}} |
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=== Societal organization === |
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Prabhupada taught that society should ideally be organized in such a way that people have specific duties according to their occupation (''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'') and stage of life (''[[Āśrama (stage)|ashrama]]'').{{sfn|King|2012a|p=200}} The four ''varnas'' are [[Brahmin|intellectual work]]; [[Kshatriya|administrative and military work]]; [[Vaishya|agriculture and business]]; and [[Shudra|ordinary labor and assistance]]. The four ''ashramas'' are [[Brahmacharya|student life]], [[Gṛhastha|married life]], [[Vānaprastha|retired life]], and [[Sannyasa|renounced life]]. In accordance with the ''Bhagavad-gita'' and in opposition to the modern [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Caste|caste system]], Prabhupada taught that one’s ''varna'', or occupational standing, should be understood in terms of one’s qualities and the work one actually does, not by one’s birth.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=119}} |
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Moreover, devotional qualifications always supersede material ones.{{sfn|Valpey|2004|p=49}} Following Chaitanya, who challenged the caste system and undercut hierarchical power structures,{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=131}} Prabhupada taught that anyone could take to the practice of ''[[Bhakti yoga|bhakti-yoga]]'' and become self-realized through the chanting of God’s [[Names of God|holy names]], as found in the ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna maha-mantra]]''.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=135}} |
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Prabhupada also emphasized the importance of self-sufficient farming communities as places where one could live simply and cultivate Krishna consciousness.{{sfn|Farkas|2021|p=2}} |
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=== Spiritual practices === |
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==== ''Kirtan'' ==== |
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[[File:Prabhupada Germany Studio.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Pranbhupada plays the [[Pump organ|harmonium]] during a recording session in Germany.|left]] |
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The main spiritual practice Prabhupada taught was [[Kirtan|''Krishna sankirtana'']] (also simply called ''kirtan'' or ''kirtana''), in which people musically chant together names of Krishna, especially in the form of the ''maha-mantra'': <blockquote>''Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare<br> Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.'' </blockquote>''Kirtan'' literally means “description”, hence “praise”, and ''sankirtana'' indicates ''kirtan'' performed by people together.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=177–178}} |
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On the authority of traditional [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit texts]], Chaitanya Mahaprabhu had taught that Krishna ''kirtan'' is the most effective method for spiritual realization in the present age (''[[Kali Yuga|Kali-yuga]]'') – more effective than silent meditation (''[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]''), speculative study (''[[Jñāna|jnana]]''), worship in temples (''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]''), or performing the various physical or mental disciplines of ''[[yoga]]''. ''Krishna kirtan'', he had taught, can be done by anyone, anywhere, at any time, and without hard-and-fast rules. Because the names of Krishna are “transcendental sounds”, identical with Krishna himself, the chanting is spiritually uplifting.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=51}} |
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[[File:Hare Kṛṣṇa Kīrtana and purport.ogg|thumb|Prabhupada leads ''[[Kirtan|Hare Krishna kirtan]]'' and explains the ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|maha-mantra]]''. October 1966.|280x280px]] |
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When Prabhupada began his efforts to spread Krishna consciousness in the United States, he held ''kirtans'' in a [[Bowery]] loft, in his early storefront temples, in [[Tompkins Square Park]] in [[New York City|New York]] and [[Golden Gate Park]] in [[San Francisco]], and wherever else he went.{{sfn|Greene|2016|pp=117‒118}} Following Prabhupada, his disciples soon began holding ''kirtans'' regularly in streets, parks, temples, and other venues in major cities in [[North America]] and [[Europe]] and then in [[Latin America]], [[Australia]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]].Because of Hare Krishna ''kirtan'', Prabhupada’s movement itself came to be referred to simply as “Hare Krishna” and its followers as “Hare Krishnas”. {{efn|See the etymologies for “Hare Krishna” in, for example, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the Merriam-Webster dictionaries, and ''Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary''.}} |
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Theologically speaking, the term ''sankirtana'' can extend from the public chanting of Hare Krishna to the distribution of books spoken by or about Krishna. ''Kirtan'' in the sense of public chanting is traditionally accompanied by ''kartals'' ([[Clash cymbals|hand cymbals]]) and [[Mridangam|mridangas]] (drums), and Prabhupada’s spiritual master and grand spiritual master had said that distribution of Krishna literature was the “great ''mridanga''” because such distribution spreads Krishna consciousness still further.{{sfn|Haddon|2013|p=262}}{{sfn|Daner|1976|pp=17-18}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013|p=262}} Prabhupada therefore gave great importance to such distribution. |
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[[File:661125-Handwritten Notice by SP-01.tif|left|thumb|359x359px|In 1966 Prabhupada posted this notice on the bathroom door of his first temple in New York, listing the principles he expected his disciples to follow.{{sfn|Hayagriva Dasa|1985}}]] |
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==== Association with devotees ==== |
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Prabhupada’s tradition constantly makes the point that “association with saints inspires saintliness, association with devotees inspires devotion. The association of genuine devotees can exert a powerful effect upon one's consciousness”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=129}} And so when Prabhupada incorporated ISKCON, its founding document included as one the Society’s purposes “To bring the members of the Society together with each other and nearer to Krishna”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=174}} |
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==== Initiation vows ==== |
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Prabhupada required of his followers, as a prerequisite for spiritual initiation, that they promise to follow four “regulative principles”: no illicit sex (that is, no [[Extramarital sex|sex outside of marriage]]), no eating of meat, fish, or eggs, no [[Psychoactive drug|intoxicants]] (including drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, and even coffee and tea), and no [[gambling]].{{sfn|Rochford|2007|pp=12-13}}{{sfn|Rochford|2005|p=102}} New initiates also vowed to daily chant sixteen meditative “rounds” of the ''Hare Krishna mantra'' (that is, to complete sixteen circuits of chanting the mantra on a 108-bead strand).{{sfn|Rochford|2005|p=102}} |
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==== Hearing of ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' ==== |
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For at least the last millennium, the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' has been “by far the most important work in the Krishna tradition” and “the scripture ''<u>par excellence</u>'' of the Krishnaite schools”.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=9}} It is sometimes described as “the ripened fruit of the Vedic tree”.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=113}}{{sfn|Rahul Peter Das|1998}} Accordingly, Prabhupada instituted daily classes on the ''Bhagavatam'' in all his centers,{{sfn|Fahy|2014|p=8}} and he spoke on ''Bhagavatam'' daily, wherever he went.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|1984|Chapter 15}} |
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==== Deity worship ==== |
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[[File:BWneg 336 y21A-22.tif|thumb|280x280px|Prabhupada gives [[Diksha|spiritual initiation]] to a disciple.]] |
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In accordance with traditional Vaishnava teachings, Prabhupada introduced worship of Krishna in the form of a ''[[murti]]'': figures cast in metal or carved in stone or wood to match descriptions of Krishna given in [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava texts]]. Scholar of religion Kenneth Valpey writes: <blockquote>“Prabhupāda explained that although omnipresent, Kṛṣṇa makes himself perceivable and hence worshipable through material elements which are, after all, his own ‘energies.’ Based on this reasoning one should understand the image of Kṛṣṇa to be ‘Kṛṣṇa personally,’ appearing in a way quite suitable for our vision,’ that is, perceivable by ordinary persons with ordinary powers of sight”.{{sfn|Valpey|2006|p=127 citing a lecture by Prabhupada |
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}}</blockquote> Prabhupada taught that because Krishna is personally present as the deity (the term Prabhupada used for such a form), worshiping the deity helps one develop loving exchanges with Krishna. Prabhupada installed deities in ISKCON temples around the world.{{sfn|Ravindra Svarupa Dasa|1985|pp=70-72}} |
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Food prepared and offered to the deity of Krishna with devotion becomes sanctified as [[Prasada|''krishna-prasadam'']] ("mercy of Krishna"). Prabhupada taught that eating only ''prasadam'' purifies one’s existence and helps one develop in ''bhakti''. From the beginning of his mission Prabhupada distributed ''prasadam'' to visitors.{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2010|p=29}} A weekly prasadam feast for the public has always been a program at all of ISKCON centers.{{sfn|King|2012b|pp=444, 448}} Prabhupada wrote, “The Hare Krishna Movement is based on the principle: chant Hare Krishna mantra at every moment, both inside and outside of the temples, and, as far as possible, distribute prasadam". {{sfn|King|2012b|p=442, citing Prabhupada’s purport to ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' 4.12.10}} |
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==== Living in Vrindavan ==== |
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Prabhupada’s predecessors such as [[Rupa Goswami]] had taught the value of living in [[Vrindavan]] (sometimes spelled “Vrindaban”), the sacred town between [[Agra]] and [[New Delhi]] that is held to be the site of Krishna’s rural “pastimes” on earth and therefore conducive to constant remembrance of Krishna. Prabhupada accordingly brought his disciples on pilgrimage to Vrindavan and there established the [[ISKCON Temple, Vrindavan|Krishna-Balaram temple]]. Yet with a broader outlook he wrote one disciple, “[W]herever you remain, if you are fully absorbed in your transcendental work in Krishna consciousness, that place is eternally Vrindaban. It is the consciousness that creates Vrindaban”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=189}} |
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== Principal writings == |
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[[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]], who had specifically encouraged writing and publishing, at one meeting told Prabhupada: If you ever get money, print books.{{sfn|Shinn|1987|p=35}}{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=112}} So regardless of how busy or sometimes unwell Prabhupada might have been, he remained focused on producing books.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=113}} Prabhupada slept little, waking at 1:00 am every night{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=143}} to translate and comment on the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' and other texts.{{sfn|Goswami2012|p=114}} During the day he would give attention to guiding disciples and seeing to the affairs of his international society and its temples, and very early in the morning, while most people were asleep, he did most of his writing “because even with his age and uncertain health, he was unwilling to sacrifice his writing time for extra rest”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=177}} |
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By 1970 he had translated the ''Bhagavad-gita'', two cantos of the ''Bhagavatam'', a summary study of its tenth canto, and a summary volume drawn from the expansive [[Chaitanya Charitamrita|Caitanya-caritamrta]]. From 1970 on, his literary output slowed only slightly due to the demands of his expanding Hare Krishna movement.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=118}} His task, as scholars have observed, was not merely to translate the text but to translate an entire tradition.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=117}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}} |
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Historian of religion [[Thomas Hopkins (scholar of religion)|Thomas Hopkins]] relates that Prabhupada told him in a conversation in [[Philadelphia]] in 1975 that "the ''Gita'' provided the basic education on Krishna devotion, the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' was like graduate study, and the ''Caitanya-caritamrita'' was like [[postgraduate education]] for the most advanced devotees”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|pp=178-179}} |
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Hopkins says that by presenting in English such works as the ''Bhagavatam'' and ''Caitanya-caritamrta'', Prabhupada made important texts accessible to the Western world that were simply not accessible before. Hopkins says, “[W]hat few English translations there were of the ''Bhagavata'' ''Purana'' and ''Caitanya-caritamrta'' were barely adequate and very hard to get hold of”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}}{{efn|Hopkins recalls that, when he was working on his doctoral work in the early 1960s, the only copy of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' he was able to obtain was by interlibrary loan on [[Microform|microfilm]] from [[Harvard University|Harvard’s]] [[Widener Library]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}}}} Prabhupada, Hopkins says, “made these and other texts available in a way that they never were before” and “made the tradition itself accessible to the West”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}} |
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=== ''Bhagavad-gita As It Is'' === |
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[[File:Indian President Pratibha Patil receives Bhagavad Gita.jpg|thumb|280x280px|[[President of India]] [[Pratibha Patil]] receives a copy of [[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|''Bhagavad Gita As It Is'']]. (14 December 2011)]] |
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In 1966-67, Prabhupada wrote a translation and commentary on the [[Bhagavad Gita|''Bhagavad-gita'']] he entitled [[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|''Bhagavad-gita As It Is'']]. It was first published by the [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Company]] in 1968 in an abridged edition and later, in 1972, in full.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=166}} For each verse he first gives the [[Sanskrit]] [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]], then a [[Romanization|roman transliteration]] and word-for-word gloss, followed by his translation and a commentary, or “purport”.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=167}} Scholar of religion Richard H. Davis comments that this was “the first English translation of the ''Gita'' to supply an authentic interpretation from an Indian devotional tradition”.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=168}} It is “by far the most widely distributed of all English Gita translations”.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=167}} In 2015 Davis wrote, “The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust estimates that twenty-three million copies of Prabhupada’s translation have been sold, including the English original and secondary translations into fifty-six other languages”.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=168}} For Prabhupada, Davis says, “the essential fact about the ''Bhagavad-gita'' is its speaker. The ''Gita'' contains the words of Krishna, and Krishna is the ‘Supreme Personality of Godhead.’” In Prabhupada’s view, other translations lack authority because the translators use them to express their own opinions rather than the message of Krishna. In contrast, Prabhupada saw his task in presenting what Krishna wanted to say, and so he claimed to present the ''Bhagavad-gita'' “as it is”.{{sfn|Davis|2015|p=165}} |
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=== ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' === |
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At once a sacred history, a theological treatise, and a philosophical text,{{sfn|Bryant|2003|p=xxxix}} the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' “stands out by reason of its literary excellence, the organization that it brings to its vast material, and the effect that it has had on later writers”.{{sfn|Ingalls|1968|p=vi}} Praising the poetry of the ''Bhagavatam'', scholar of religion [[Edwin Bryant (Indologist)|Edwin Bryant]] says, “[S]cholars of the text have every right to say that ‘the ''Bhagavata'' can be ranked with the best of the literary works produced by mankind.’”{{sfn|Bryant|2003|p=lx, quoting Ramnarayan Vyas, The Synthetic Philosophy of the Bhāgavata.}} |
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[[File:Srimad-Bhagavatam set.jpg|left|thumb|600x600px|alt=A row of multi-colored books with golden print on their spines.|Prabhupada’s edition of ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Srimad-Bhagavatam]]'', with his translation and commentary.]] |
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It was this great work that Prabhupada, after taking ''sannyasa'', set out to present in English, with, once again, the original Sanskrit text, its word-for-word meanings, a translation, and an in-depth commentary.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=35-36}} Also known as ''Srimad-Bhagavata'' [[Puranas|''Purana'']], ''Bhagavata'' ''Purana'', or just the ''Bhagavata''{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=111}} ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' is a work of twelve books (“[[Canto|cantos]]” was the word Prabhupada used) comprising more than fourteen thousand verse couplets.{{sfn|Gupta|Valpey|2016|p=1}} “''Srimad''” means “beautiful” or “glorious”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=119}} |
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Prabhupada began his translation and commentary on the ''Bhagavatam'' after accepting ''sannyasa'' in 1959, and by 1965 he had completed and published the first canto.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=127}} He worked on translating the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' into English for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=177}} |
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The cantos were published one by one, as he finished them. He completed nine cantos and thirteen chapters of the tenth. The rest of the ''Bhagavatam'' was completed by his disciples.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=177}} |
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Thomas Hopkins, historian of religion, pointed out that by presenting in English such works as the ''Bhagavatam'' and ''Caitanya-caritamrta'', Prabhupada made important texts accessible to the Western world that were simply not accessible before. Hopkins said: “[W]hat few English translations there were of the ''Bhagavata'' ''Purana'' and ''Caitanya-caritamrta'' were barely adequate and very hard to get hold of”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}} |
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Hopkins recalls that, when he was working on his doctoral work in the early 1960s, the only copy of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' he was able to obtain was by interlibrary loan on [[Microform|microfilm]] from [[Harvard University|Harvard’s]] [[Widener Library]]. But Prabhupada, Hopkins said, “made these and other texts available in a way that they never were before” and “made the tradition itself accessible to the West”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}} |
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=== ''Krsna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead'' === |
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Considering his old age and the vast size of the ''Bhagavatam'', Prabhupada knew he might not live to finish it. So in 1968 he undertook to present the ''Bhagavatam''’s tenth canto — the essence of the work — in summary form as ''Krsna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead''.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=766}} |
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This summary study is “Prabhupada’s own exposition of the story of Krishna as it is told in the Tenth Canto”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=177}} It “laid out the account of Krishna from the ''Bhagavata Purana'' that provides the images and stories central to Krishna devotion”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=178}} In writing this commentary, Prabhupada also draws on a commentary by [[Sanatana Goswami]],{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=114}} one of the famed “[[Six Goswamis of Vrindavan|six Goswamis]]” who were direct followers of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. |
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As Bryant says: <blockquote>“The tenth book of the ''Bhāgavata'' has inspired generations of artists, dramatists, musicians, poets, singers, writers, dancers, sculptors, architects and temple-patrons across the centuries. Its stories are well known to every Hindu household across the length and breadth of the Indian subcontinent, and celebrated in regional festivals all year round”.{{sfn|Bryant|2003|pp=lxviii–lxix}}</blockquote>Prabhupada himself inspired artists among his disciples to provide the text with profuse full-color illustrations. Such illustrations became a feature of nearly all his books.{{sfn|Jacobsen|2024|p=405}} |
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A related work is ''Light of the Bhagavat'', written by Prabhupada in Vrindavan in 1961, before he went to the West, but published only after his death. The book is a treatment of one chapter (chapter twenty) of the tenth canto. Prabhupada composed forty-eight commentaries for the chapter’s verses. The book is accordingly illustrated with forty-eight paintings.{{sfn|A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|1997}} |
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=== ''Ishopanishad'' === |
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In 1969 Prabhupada published, again in his full verse-by-verse format, his translation and commentary for the ''[[Isha Upanishad|Ishopanishad]]''{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=144}} — also known as the ''Īśa Upaniṣad'' or ''Īśāvāsya Upaniṣad'' {{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=405}}, which in 1960 he had partially serialized in his [[Back to Godhead|''Back to Godhead'']] magazine.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=144}} The ''Ishopanishad'', consisting of only eighteen ''mantras'',{{sfn|Nikhilananda|1949|p=195}} is considered one of the principal ''[[Upanishads]]''.{{sfn|Hume|1921|p=xii}} In all indigenous collections of the ''Upanishads'', the ''Iśopaniṣad'' comes first.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=405}} Its first verse, “highly regarded as a capsule of Vedic theology”,{{sfn|Rahul Peter Das|1998}} presents a god-centered view of the universe.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=144}} The celebrated traditional commentator [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] wrote, “One who is eager to rid himself of the suffering and delusion of saṁsāra, created by ignorance, and attain Supreme Bliss is entitled to read this ''Upaniṣad''”.{{sfn|Nikhilananda|1949|p=199}} |
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=== ''The Nectar of Devotion'' === |
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Begun in 1968,{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=176}} ''The Nectar of Devotion'' is a summary study of [[Rupa Goswami]]’s ''Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu'', his “famous exposition of the principles of devotion”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=176}} Scholar-practitioner [[Shrivatsa Goswami]] has described ''Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu'' as “a textbook of devotional practice, an exposition on the philosophy of devotion, and a study of devotional psychology”.{{sfn|Shrivatsa Goswami|1983|pp=246-247}} ''The Nectar of Devotion'' “gave access to Gaudiya Vaisnavism’s most important theological treatise on devotion”.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=178}} |
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=== ''Caitanya-caritamrta'' === |
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[[File:Caitanya-caritamrita set.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Prabhupada’s edition of ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita|Caitanya-caritamrita]]'', with his translation and commentary.]] |
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''Caitanya-caritamrta'' is the seventeenth-century account of the life and teachings of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]], who founded the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition.{{sfn|Hopkins|2007|p=176}} Written in the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] language, it runs to more than 15,000 verses and “is regarded as the most authoritative work on Śrī Caitanya”, a work of “rare merit”, with “no parallel in the whole of Bengali literature”.{{sfn|Kapoor|1976|pp=61-62}} Scholar of religion [[Hugh Urban]] calls it “one of the greatest works in all of Indian vernacular literature”.{{sfn|Urban|2003|p=265}} |
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Prabhupada completed his translation in 1974, within two years,{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=118}} and it was published in seventeen volumes, again with verse-by-verse text, transliteration, word meanings, translation and commentary.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=35-36}} He based his commentary on the Bengali commentaries of his predecessors [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur|Bhaktivinoda Thakura]] and [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=141}} |
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Before Srila Prabhupada’s translation, the work in English was simply unavailable. After Prabhupada’s edition came out, scholar Bruce J. Long wrote, “The appearance of an English translation of [[Krishnadasa Kaviraja|Kṛṣṇadāsa Kavirāja Gosvāmī]]'s ''Śri Caitanya-caritāmṛta'' by A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedānta, Founder-[[Acharya|Ācārya]] of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, is a cause for celebration among both scholars in Indian Studies and lay-people seeking to enrich their knowledge of Indian spirituality”.{{sfn|Long|1978|p=286}} |
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Several years earlier, in 1968, Prabhupada published ''Teachings of Lord Caitanya''.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=233}} The book offers a summary of selected portions of ''Caitanya-caritamrita''.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=209}} |
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{{efn|Scholar and disciple [[Tamal Krishna Goswami]] writes that Prabhupada’s first publishing ''Bhagavad-gītā As It Is'' in abridged form and publishing summary studies from the ''Bhagavatam'' and ''Caitanya-caritamrita'' before completing full translations and commentaries “expresses both an urgency that Prabhupāda felt in transmitting these works as essential sacred texts and the weightiness that each of these three foundational texts possessed within the tradition that Prabhupāda represented”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=209}}}} |
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=== ''The Nectar of Instruction'' === |
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Prabhupada also wrote a verse-by-verse commentated translation of [[Rupa Goswami]]’s eleven-verse ''Upadeshamrita'',{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=144}} one of Rupa Goswami’s shortest works,{{sfn|Valpey|2004|p=52}} which provides concise directions on how to carry out devotional service.{{sfn|Burt|2023|p=12}} |
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=== Bhaktivedanta Book Trust === |
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In 1972 Prabhupada founded the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust (BBT), which manages the international publishing and distribution of his writings.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=132}} Apart from his major works, the BBT publishes various paperbacks derived from his lectures.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=119}} The BBT also publishes [[Back to Godhead|''Back to Godhead'']], the magazine Prabhupada founded, in multiple languages.{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|p=142}} Between 1973 and 1977, Prabhupada’s followers distributed several million books and other pieces of Krishna conscious literature every year in shopping malls, airports, and other public locations in the United States and worldwide.{{sfn|Rochford|1983|p=285}} As of 2023, his books had been translated into eighty-seven languages.{{sfn|''The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust''|}} In 2022, the BBT printed more than two million pieces of literature.{{sfn|Haribol|2023}} |
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== Critical assessments of Prabhupada’s writings == |
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[[Shrivatsa Goswami]] has said, “Making these Vaiṣṇava texts available is one of Śrīla Prabhupāda’s greatest contributions. Apart from the masses, his books have also reached well into academic circles and have spurred academic interest in the Caitanya tradition”.{{sfn|Shrivatsa Goswami|1983|p=247}} Further, he says, “The significance of making these texts available is not merely academic or cultural; it is spiritual. ''[[Jñāna]]'', knowledge, is spread, proper doctrines are made known, people come closer to reality”.{{sfn|Shrivatsa Goswami|1983|p=247}} Other academics, too, have applauded Prabhupada’s publications.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=81}} |
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But [[Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is|his edition]] of ''Bhagavad-gita'', in particular, has come in for criticism as well. [[Eric J. Sharpe|Eric Sharpe]], scholar of religion, considers Prabhupada’s reading of ''Bhagavad-gita'' single-minded and fundamentalist.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=82}} Sanskrit scholar A.L. Herman concurs.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=75–76}} Another scholar, K. P. Sinha, takes exception to Prabhupada’s “misinterpretations and unkind remarks” directed toward [[Advaita Vedanta]], the philosophy of absolute monism.{{sfn|Sinha|1997|preface}}{{efn|For a discussion of the criticisms by Herman, see Tamal Krishna Goswami, ''A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti'' (2012) pp 75–76.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=75-76}} Goswami leaves Sinha’s critique aside on the grounds that it is “clearly a sectarian polemic rather than an academic study” and for a rebuttal points us to Gerald Surya’s review of Sinha’s "A critique of A.C. Bhaktivedanta" in ISKCON Communications Journal, 7:2, December 1999, http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html.}} |
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The most detailed critical analysis by a Western, non-Hindu scholar comes from historian of religion Robert D. Baird.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=82}} Baird takes upon himself the task of not merely seeing Prabhupada as “an authentic proponent of Vaishnavism” but of examining as an academic scholar the way Prabhupada reads the ''Bhagavad-gita''.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=200}} |
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[[File:SP in a lecture in front of Rupa Goswami samadhi.jpg|left|thumb|360x360px|Prabhupada lectures on ''The Nectar of Devotion'' in front of [[Rupa Goswami|Rupa Goswami’s]] ''[[Samadhi (shrine)|samadhi]]'' in [[Vrindavan]]. (India, 1972)]] |
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Whereas many scholars, Baird writes, see “some degree of progression” in the ''Gita'', with different themes emphasized in different parts of the book, Prabhupada “reads the complete teaching of the book, indeed of [[Vedas|Vedic literature]] generally, into any passage”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=201}} It appears “that he considers it legitimate to interpret any verse in the light of the whole system found in the ''Gītā'' whether it is explicitly mentioned in that verse of the Gītā or not”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=203}} In this way, he reads “Krishna consciousness” even into portions of the text where Krishna is not explicitly mentioned.{{sfn|Baird|1986|pp=201‒203}} Prabhupada cites later passages in the ''Gita'' to explain earlier passages.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=213}} Indeed, he even quotes from other texts in the canon (whether written before the ''Gita'' or after{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=213}}) to indicate the intention of the ''Gita'', “as though they have the same authority as the ''Gita'' itself”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=213}} And so: “In all, a wide range of texts are used to serve as authorities for understanding the ''Gītā''. Swami Bhaktivedanta not only treats specific texts in a way that would be unusual among Western scholars, but he sees specific texts in the light of the Vedas in general”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=216}} |
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Whereas other scholars, Baird writes, would give great attention to the overall structure of the ''Gita'', Prabhupada gives the structure scant notice, preferring instead to make this point: “In every chapter of ''Bhagavad-gītā'', Lord Kṛṣṇa stresses that devotional service unto the [[Svayam Bhagavan|Supreme Personality of Godhead]] is the ultimate goal of life”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=217}} |
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Prabhupada uses the text of the ''Gita'' to present various aspects of Krishna theology.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=207}} And “he also goes beyond specific texts and the ''Gītā'' itself when he makes it the occasion for the inculcation of a Vaishnava lifestyle,”{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=203}} typified by chanting the ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|maha-mantra]]'', regulating one’s sexual activity, offering food to Krishna, and following a vegetarian diet.{{sfn|Baird|1986|pp=203‒207}} And so: “Swami Bhaktivedanta is more interested in expounding the principles of Krishna consciousness than in merely explicating the text at hand”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=205}} In one instance cited, “the text recommends one thing [''[[Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)|astanga-yoga]]''] and Bhaktivedanta Swami cancels that and offers the ''mahāmantra''”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=205}} |
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As for competing interpretations: “Bhaktivedanta often seeks to show the superiority of the Vaishnava position and the error of other positions”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=208}} “The position that is attacked with the most regularity and vigor is that of Advaita Vedanta,”{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=208}} “the system of thought that is commonly used to provide the structure for Western understandings of ‘Hinduism’”,{{sfn|Baird|1987|p=105}} whose advocates Prabhupada calls Mayavadins, impersonalists, or monists.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=208}} For Advaita Vedanta he reserves his strongest condemnations.{{sfn|Baird|1987|p=105}} |
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Nor does Prabhupada only criticize “impersonalists”. Rather, “Scholars in particular come under Swami Bhaktivedanta’s condemnation because they are merely ‘mental speculators’”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=220}} In Prabhupada’s view, Baird says, “Since these scholars are not surrendered to Krishna, they are not Krishna conscious; they are merely offering their own ideas rather than the truth within the ''[[Guru–shishya tradition|paramparā]]'' system [the lineage of masters and disciples]”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=220}} Prabhupada “seldom engages in the kind of argumentation that scholars are accustomed to when deciding between alternative positions”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=221}} Instead he takes a position as a [[Guru|spiritual master]] within the disciplic succession and “merely declares" what is true.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=221}} And so, Baird says, “The gulf between Swami Bhaktivedanta’s presentation and that of the scholarly [[Exegesis|exegete]] is simply unbridgeable, for their purposes operate on different levels”.{{sfn|Baird|1986|p=200}}{{efn|For a discussion of Baird’s critique, see Tamal Krishna Goswami's ''A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti: Essential Teachings of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada'' (2012), pp. 66–71.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pages = 66-71}}}} |
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But what some scholars might see as faults, others see as virtues. Thomas Hopkins sees Prabhupada’s translations and purports as successfully conveying the meaning of the text precisely because Prabhupada draws upon the commentaries of his predecessors and brings to his work the understandings of his entire tradition.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|pp=140–141}} Moreover, Hopkins says, Prabhupada does this in such a way that the entire text becomes comprehensible to a modern reader, not only theoretically but practically.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=142}} Translations of such texts as the ''Gita'', Hopkins says, cannot be done mechanically.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=146}} The translator has to understand the spirit and the experience that lie behind the text.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=146}} Where Prabhupada’s translations expand the text, they do so “for the sake of making the meaning more clear, rather than obscuring it”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=144}} Hopkins says, “Writing a commentary is not a merely intellectual or academic exercise—it has a practical goal: to engage people with a living spiritual tradition”.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=142}} Prabhupada, he says, brings the meaning of the text out of the past and into the present, giving it meaning in terms of people’s lives.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=141}} |
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== Challenges and controversies == |
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In Prabhupada’s efforts to establish and expand Krishna consciousness, some of the difficulties he faced were internal to his new and growing movement. He had to train disciples unaccustomed to Vaishnava culture and philosophy and engage them in furthering his Hare Krishna movement;{{sfn|Deadwyler|2004|p=154}} he had to set up and then guide his Governing Body Commission to see to ISKCON's global management. He often had to intervene when clashes and controversies within ISKCON grew out of hand. He had to sort out difficulties faced by individual disciples, ensure a proper understanding of his teachings, and, more broadly, transplant an entire cultural movement.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|pp=1, 23}} He also faced challenges from the outside world. |
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=== Cult image and “brainwashing” === |
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Until the mid-1970s the attitude of the Western public towards Prabhupada and his movement was cordial. News reports tried to reliably describe the Hare Krishna devotees, their beliefs, and their religious practices. The spirit of curiosity prevailed, while hostility was almost nonexistent.{{sfn|Melton|1989|p=92}} |
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But by the mid-1970s this changed. The rapidly expanding Hare Krishna movement — distinctive, foreign, highly visible, and vigorous (often over-vigorous) in spreading its message — became an early target for a nascent “[[anti-cult movement]]”. No longer was the Hare Krishna movement seen to represent an authentic spiritual tradition. Rather, it was now one of a myriad of “[[Cult|destructive cults]]” that won converts and took over their lives by “[[Brainwashing|mind control]]” and “[[brainwashing]]”. When young adults, supposedly robbed of free will and “programmed” by mind control, became Hare Krishna devotees, some parents hired “[[Deprogramming|deprogrammers]]” to kidnap them and “free them from the cult”. “Deprogrammings” typically involved days or weeks of isolation, browbeating, and intense verbal haranguing and harassment.{{sfn|Cox|1983|p=57}}{{sfn|Shinn|1983|p=95}}{{sfn|Rochford|1995|p=217}}{{sfn|Goswami2012|p=38}} |
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After one such “deprogramming” failed, the [[New York County District Attorney|New York City District Attorney]]’s Office charged two local Hare Krishna leaders with illegally imprisoning two Hare Krishna followers by brainwashing them.{{sfn|Schumach|1977}}{{efn|The case is People v. Murphy (N.Y. 1977) 98 Misc.2d 235.}} |
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Prabhupada instructed his disciples to fight these charges, among other ways by entering his books into evidence.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=53}} Meanwhile, two hundred scholars signed a document defending ISKCON as an authentic Indian missionary movement.{{sfn|Melton|1989|p=95}} |
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In March of 1977 a [[New York Supreme Court|New York State Supreme Court]] justice threw out the charges and recognized that ISKCON represents a [[Good faith|bona fide]] religious tradition.{{sfn|Schumach|1977}} Nonetheless, in America and Europe the “cult” label and image persisted for the rest of Prabhupada’s lifetime and beyond.{{sfn|Rochford|1995|p=217}} |
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As scholar [[James A. Beckford|James Beckford]] notes, in the 1970s Hare Krishna devotees became increasingly active in selling their literature and collecting donations from the public,{{sfn|Beckford|1985|p=26}} so they were sharply criticized for what was seen as harassing people for money at airports and other public places. As [[Edwin Bryant (Indologist)|Bryant]] and Ekstrand comment, “Questionable fund-raising tactics, confrontational attitudes to mainstream authorities, and an isolationist mentality, coupled with the excesses of neophyte proselytizing zeal, brought public disapproval”{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=4}} — something that Prabhupada had to deal with too. |
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=== Institutionalization === |
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As ISKCON evolved towards being a worldwide organization, it suffered from the inevitable travails of institutionalization. Young disciples, mostly from an [[anti-establishment]], [[Anti-authoritarianism|anti-authoritarian]] background, became members of the GBC and found themselves running a worldwide institution. Preaching sometimes started giving way to revenue production; gender issues arose; leaders sometimes fell, and scandals broke out. Bureaucracy intruded on spontaneity, and many members left. As much as Prabhupada tried to leave management to the GBC, much of this he too had to deal with personally.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=4}}{{sfn|Anuttama Dasa|Mukunda Goswami|2004|p=408}} |
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=== Child abuse === |
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Prabhupada directed his disciples to train children in boarding schools called ''[[Gurukula|gurukulas]]'', where they would receive education from spiritual teachers. However, as reported by sociologist of religion [[E. Burke Rochford]], through mismanagement these schools became like orphanages. After Prabhupada’s departure it came to light that physical and sexual abuse occured within these schools due to lack of oversight.{{sfn|Rochford|2007|pp=75-91}} |
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=== Obstacles in India === |
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In India, Prabhupada faced a special set of challenges. He had much to accomplish there, but his American and European disciples were inexperienced in how to get things done in India and even how to live there.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=37}} |
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When Prabhupada’s young American followers came to India in the early 1970s and began holding festivals, including public ''sankirtana'', many Indians were surprised to see Westerners adopting Indian modes of worship and devotion. Some local people, including even some Indian officials, suspected that the American devotees must be undercover operatives of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA).{{sfn|Mehta|1993|p=78}}{{sfn|Cole|2007|p=33}} |
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Outspoken and uncompromising as he was in the way he presented Krishna’s teachings, in India, as elsewhere, Prabhupada found himself battling with opposing views of all sorts.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=99}} Therefore another challenge came from Prabhupada’s consistent rejection of the common Hindu notion of caste by birth. Since Prabhupada, like his predecessors, insisted that anyone, from any race or nation, could become spiritually purified and fit to perform the duties of priests, he faced opposition from Hindu [[Brahmin|''brahmins'']] who held that performing such duties was an exclusive birthright of their caste.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=192}}{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|p=155}} |
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When Prabhupada resolved to build a temple on land in [[Juhu|Juhu, Bombay]] (now [[Mumbai]]), the man who had sold ISKCON the land tried to [[Fraud|swindle]] the devotees and take it back. The man had deep political connections in the [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation|Bombay municipality]] and employed lawyers and even thugs to drive the devotees off, but Prabhupada persisted and eventually won.{{sfn|Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|2002|pp=536-537}}{{efn|For a book-length telling of this saga, see ''I’ll Build You a Temple'' by [[Giriraja Swami]].}} |
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=== Deviations === |
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While working to establish his movement, Prabhupada had to deal with problems caused even by leading disciples, who, monks or not, could still hold on to intellectual baggage, disdain for authority, and ambitions for power.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} In 1968 Prabhupada's first ''sannyasi'' disciple openly disregarded Prabhupada’s instructions to him and twisted core tenets of Prabhupada’s teachings. This foreshadowed succession problems and issues of authority that Prabhupada’s movement would face both during Prabhupada’s presence and after.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} |
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Unlike Indian gurus who declared themselves ''[[Avatar|avatars]]'', divine appearances of God, Prabhupada from the very beginning of his preaching called himself only a servant or representative of God.{{sfn|Daner|1976|p=19}} But in 1970 four of Prabhupada’s early ''sannyasis'' announced at a large ISKCON gathering that Prabhupada’s followers had failed to recognize that Prabhupada was actually Krishna, God himself. Prabhupada expelled those ''sannyasis'' from his Society (he eventually readmitted them, after they recanted their claim).{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} |
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In 1972, without consulting Prabhupada, eight of the twelve members of the GBC held a meeting in New York aimed at centralizing control of ISKCON's activities and finances. Their plans would have lessened Prabhupada's own oversight and set aside his emphasis on the autonomy of each ISKCON center. This prompted Prabhupada to suspend the entire GBC "until further notice", establish direct lines of communication with each temple's leaders, and re-emphasize spiritual purity, the selfless and voluntary nature of devotional life, and the exemplary conduct befitting ISKCON leaders. This, he said, is what he wanted, not corporate bureaucracy and excessive centralization. (He later unsuspended the GBC).{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} |
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In 1975 a clash broke out when a team of ten parties of itinerant ''sannyasis'', assisted by two hundred ''[[Brahmacharya|brahmacharis]]'', criss-crossed America, visiting ISKCON temples to extoll renunciation and a missionary spirit — and urge ''brahmacharis'' to abandon the temples and join the ''sannyasi'' parties. The temples, the team argued, were led by presidents who were ''[[Gṛhastha|grihasthas]]'' (married men), and grihasthas had a propensity for enjoyment that undermined what should be an austere temple atmosphere.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} |
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The conflict reached its peak in 1976 in Mayapur at ISKCON’s annual global gathering when a ''sannyasi''-dominated GBC passed resolutions severely restricting the role of women and families in ISKCON.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} After hearing from both sides, Prabhupada came down against this type of discrimination, calling it “fanaticism”, and had the GBC undo the resolutions. Prabhupada said, "I cannot discriminate — man, woman, child, rich, poor, educated, or foolish. Let them all come, and let them take Krishna consciousness".{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|1997}} |
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== Controversial statements == |
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Prabhupada sometimes made statements that criticize various ideals of modern society or speak offensively of certain groups.{{sfn|Burt|2023|p=57}} |
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Two essays by Ekkehard Lorenz in ''The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant''{{efn| The editors of the volume, [[Edwin Bryant (Indologist)|Edwin Bryant]] and Maria Ekstrand, sought to include in the book “a wide range of voices”, including those not only of well-credentialed academics but also of current ISKCON members and of former members (in the editors’ words, the movement’s “most vocal” critics),{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=6}} of whom Lorenz is one.{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=186}} According to Bryan and Ekstrand, this lack of strictly academic treatment in favor of real-life reflections contributed to the "interplay between detached analysis and passionate advocacy" that "brings the volume to life and constitutes its strength".{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=7}}}} compile controversial statements made by Prabhupada on [[slavery]], [[Caste|lower castes]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Darwinism|Darwin’s theory of evolution]], the [[moon landing]], and women.{{sfn|Smith|2004|pp=185-186}} |
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Reviewing the essays, scholar of religion [[Ravi M. Gupta|Ravi Gupta]] writes that they depict Prabhupada as “racist, sexist, intellectually dishonest, ungrateful, unethical, unsophisticated, and unaware of the norms of the societies in which he lived” and blame his teachings “for condoning abuse of children, abuse of women, and abuse by leadership, while promoting dictatorship, intolerance, and autocratic rule by the guru”.{{sfn|Gupta|2005|p=82}} As scholar of religion Måns Broo puts it, the compilation “paints a picture of a not very pleasant man, one far removed from the Gaudiya Vaishnava ideals described in the classical texts of the tradition”.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=39}} And as yet another scholar of religion, Fred Smith, writes, “Lorenz, a former ISKCON member himself, vengefully presents a thoroughly damning view of Bhaktivedanta”.{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=186}} |
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While Prabhupada’s followers have had to contend with what the statements say, scholars have studied and commented on them.{{sfn|Broo|2006|pp=47–48}}{{sfn|Lakshmi Nrsimha Das|2004|pp=183–193}} |
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*On slavery: |
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<blockquote>"The blacks were slaves. They were under control. And since you have given them equal rights they are disturbing, most disturbing, always creating a fearful situation, uncultured and drunkards. What training they have got? They have got equal rights? It is best, to keep them under control as slaves but give them sufficient food, sufficient cloth, not more than that. Then they will be satisfied".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=372}}</blockquote> |
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*On caste: |
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<blockquote>"''Shudras'' [people of low caste] have no brain".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=372}} "''Shudras'' does [sic] not require any training. ''Shudra'' means no training. Ordinary worker class. Otherwise, other three, especially two, namely the ''brahmins'' and ''kshatriyas'', they require very magnificent training".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=371}}</blockquote> |
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*On Hitler, [[Jews]], and [[the Holocaust]]: |
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<blockquote>"Sometimes [a person] becomes a great hero — just like [[Hiranyakashipu]] and [[Kamsa]] or, in the modern age, [[Napoleon]] or Hitler. The activities of such men are certainly very great, but as soon as their bodies are finished, everything else is finished".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=369}}</blockquote> |
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*On science: |
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<blockquote>"Darwin’s theory stating that no human beings existed from the beginning but that humans evolved after many, many years is simply nonsensical".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=125}} Prabhupada referred to [[Charles Darwin]] and his followers as “rascals”.{{sfn|Brown|2020|p=122}}</blockquote> |
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*Prabhupada dismissed reports of the [[Apollo 11|1969 moon landing]]: |
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<blockquote>"Recently they have said that they have gone to the moon but did not find any living entities there. But ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'' and the other Vedic literatures do not agree with this foolish conception".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=125}}</blockquote> |
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*On women: |
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<blockquote>"Women cannot properly utilize freedom, and it is better for them to be dependent".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=379}} "Women in general should not be trusted".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=378}} "Women are generally not very intelligent".{{sfn|Lorenz|2004|p=378}}</blockquote> |
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Responding to Lorenz’s article, Gupta (both an academic and an ISKCON member){{sfn|Gupta|2005|p=81}} writes that Lorenz “simply quotes Prabhupada out of context and then interprets his statements with no regard to Chaitanya Vaishnava theology, the social contexts in which Prabhupada lived, or Prabhupada’s own application of his teachings”.{{sfn|Gupta|2005|p=82}} |
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Regarding context, Broo observes that when Prabhupada speaks, for example, about castes, the immediate context is that of an envisioned “ideal society” made up of self-sufficient agrarian communities in which people would be divided into different occupational groups “based not on hereditary but on individual qualifications”.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=46}} |
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[[File:1973 NY B CT016028 DRUM.tif|thumb|360x360px|An interview with Prabhupada in New York. (1973) ]] |
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As another example of context, one of Prabhupada’s followers notes in a journal review that Prabhupada was actually speaking of Hitler disparagingly, because the “great heroes” Hiranyakashipu and Kamsa with whom he compared Hitler were Puranic diabolical tyrants.{{sfn|Lakshmi Nrsimha Dasa|2004|p=202}} |
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Yet the reviewer admits that Prabhupada “did not usually condemn Hitler”.{{sfn|Lakshmi Nrsimha Dasa|2004|p=202}} Therefore Smith suggests that although scholars of religion will naturally view Prabhupada “within the context of his Gaudiya Vaishnava predecessors”, Prabhupada’s statements (such as those concerning Hitler) also “must be understood in the context of the intellectual and political culture in which he matured” — specifically that of mid-twentieth-century Bengal, brewing with anti-colonialist nationalism championed by such figures as [[Subhash Chandra Bose]], and therefore more favorably disposed to [[Nazi Germany]] than to [[Great Britain]].{{sfn|Smith|2004|pp=186-187}}{{efn|[[Subhash Chandra Bose|Bose]]'s influence and his efforts to mobilize people against [[British Raj|British rule]] significantly contributed to the growth of anti-British sentiments in Bengal and throughout India. [[Nazi Germany]] was sympathetic to India's independence and during the [[World War II]] offered financial and military assistance to Bose's [[Indian National Army]] in their struggle against [[Great Britain]]. }} |
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Both Broo and Smith also mention Prabhupada’s “flair for drama and overstatement”.{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=185}}{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=47}} Prabhupada, it seems, loved to make politically incorrect statements to reporters.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=46}} As Broo comments, “It is difficult to decide how seriously any single remark is meant to be taken from a transcript”.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=46}} |
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Nonetheless, both Broo and Smith comment that this is not enough to clear Prabhupada from blame for the more radical of his politically incorrect statements.{{sfn|Broo|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=185}} Smith speaks of Prabhupada’s “racism”,{{sfn|Smith|2004|p=186}} One disciple reviewer writes, “A few selected quotes about race and gender from the extensive Bhaktivedanta Vedabase do look unreasonable even in terms of Vaishnava values”,{{sfn|Lakshmi Nrsimha Dasa|2004|p=200}} and another disciple-academic notes, “Some of Prabhupada’s statements seem blatantly sexist”.{{sfn|Tamal Krishna Goswami|2012|p=80. Goswami says this as part of a contrast: “Some of Prabhupāda’s statements seem blatantly sexist, yet he opened his movement to women”.}} |
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Scholars have commented, however, on the contrast between such controversial statements and the full picture of what Prabhupada actually taught and did. Prabhupada’s statements about women, for instance, have received extensive consideration from [[Kim Knott]], a scholar in religious studies who in relation to ISKCON describes her perspective as that of both an “outsider” and a “western feminist”.{{sfn|Knott|2004|p=292}} Knott writes: |
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<blockquote>"What was Prabhupada’s view of these matters? It seems clear from his commentaries, lectures, and conversations that he endorsed the view of the potential liability of a woman’s body both for the soul that resides within it and for others. However, he was most adamant on the point that ''bhakti yoga'', the path of Krishna Consciousness, provided the possibility of transcending the body, whether female or male".{{sfn|Knott|2004|p=296}}</blockquote> |
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[[File:1972 MAY YB CT088002.tif|alt=An elderly Hindu monk with a shaved head and in orange traditional robes points his finger at a written note to a young Western bespectacled woman who as she is looking intently at the note. Younger monks are visible in the background. |thumb|360x360px|Prabhupada gives [[Diksha|second initiation]] (''[[Gayatri Mantra|gayatri]]'') to Visakha Devi in [[Mayapur]]. (1972)|left]] |
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Knott relates Prabhupada’s telling two of his earliest women disciples, “If you think of yourselves as women, how will you make any advancement? You must see yourself as a spirit soul, eternal servant of Krishna”.{{sfn|Knott|2004|p=296}} |
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Knott continues: |
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<blockquote>"This was his first point, then, that being a ''Vaishnavi'' [a female ''Vaishnava''], a true servant of Krishna, changed the terms of the debate about women. Additionally, through his behavior and teachings he demonstrated that, as ''Vaishnavis'', women devotees — irrespective of their material form compared to men — were equally acceptable as servants of Krishna, equally empowered with intelligence, equally open to spiritual advancement and to contributing to the advancement of others".{{sfn|Knott|2004|p=296}}</blockquote> |
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Reflecting upon the tension between ancient philosophical ideals and immediate contemporary realities, Knott writes: |
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<blockquote>"It is commendable in the face of this tension that the founder of the Hare Krishna movement made a philosophy and practice that had once been largely closed to women available to them, allowing them effective equality with men and the opportunity to serve in the same ways despite his own cultural background and the ideal prescriptions of his tradition".{{sfn|Knott|2004|p=300}}</blockquote> |
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In this way, she writes, Prabhupada took time, place, and circumstance into account and acted in the spirit of Krishna consciousness, “in the manner of Chaitanya”.{{sfn|Knott|2004|pp=300-301}} |
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Along the same lines, author Steven J. Rosen tells of a meeting between Prabhupada and a leading black disciple, Ghanasyama Dasa (later [[Bhakti Tirtha Swami]]), during the last months of Prabhupada’s life: “Srila Prabhupada smiled and called him near. Prabhupada then embraced him with tears of love and gratitude. Rubbing Ghanashyam’s head, Srila Prabhupada said, ‘Your life is successful, thank you very much.’”{{sfn|Rosen|2007b}}{{efn|Rosen comments, “For Prabhupada to be crying and embracing and rubbing the head of his disciple was something very special. Soon, all the devotees around the world were hearing of Ghanashyam’s good fortune.” Bhakti-tirtha Swami tells of the incident in an online video: https://vanipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_Tirtha_Swami_Remembers_Srila_Prabhupada, YouTube video, starting at 22:00.}}{{efn|Telling of the same incident, religious studies scholar Akshay Gupta mentions that Prabhupada rarely showed such abundant affection to his disciples, including those who were white or Indian. {{sfn|Gupta|2021}}}}{{efn|Similarly, Bhuta-bhavana Dasa, one of Prabhupada’s [[African Americans|African-American]] disciples, tells of a meeting in which Srila Prabhupada said to him and other black disciples who had come to Africa to spread Krishna consciousness, “Four hundred years ago your ancestors were taken away from here as slaves. But, ah, just see, you have returned as masters.” Bhuta-bhavana comments, “Generally in the black community if you refer to slavery, it’s not a very jovial thing, but Prabhupada made it wonderful. We had returned to Africa in Krishna consciousness”.{{sfn|Bhuta Bhavana Dasa|2018}}}} |
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Commenting on underlying causes for such controversies, scholar of religion [[Larry Shinn]] attributes the conflict between his teachings and western cultural values to "[Prabhupada]'s insistence on the infallibility of the Krishna scriptures and (...) the authenticity of Prabhupada’s Krishna faith and practice".{{sfn|Shinn|2004|p=xviii}}{{efn|[[Larry Shinn]] writes: "Perhaps Prabhupada’s piousness centering upon his deep faith in Krishna was both his greatest strength and the source of ISKCON’s most consistent tension in America. As an ''[[acharya]]'' or teacher of the Krishna scriptures and devotional faith, Prabhupada was a “holy man,” a guru whose translations of the Sanskrit scripture of the ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and of Chaitanya’s teachings were the center of his own devotional life and of his education of his new American devotees. His insistence on the infallibility of the Krishna scriptures and his interpretation of them continues to be a source of unrest within ISKCON, and certainly between ISKCON and its surrounding culture.... In one respect, it was the authenticity of Prabhupada’s Krishna faith and practice that enticed new converts to ISKCON and also caused the society to stand out in contrast, and even opposition, to western religious and cultural values".{{sfn|Shinn|2004|p=xviii}}}} |
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When Prabhupada’s controversial statements seem difficult to defend, his followers have responded in different ways: Some remain silent; others speak of context or allege that, because of negative biases, Prabhupada is being unfairly quoted; and still others are willing to distinguish between his statements they consider “absolute” and those they consider “relative” — that is, they accept “that some of Bhaktivedanta Swami’s teachings are relative to the circumstances and times in which he grew up and lived his life before coming to the US and therefore may or may not be true, in contrast to his absolute spiritual teachings”.{{sfn|Broo|2006|pp=39-40}}{{sfn|Kaunteya Das|2022}} And yet other followers see this path as “exceedingly risky” — after all, who is to decide which teachings are relative and which are not? Broo concludes that this is an issue “not likely to be resolved soon”.{{sfn|Broo|2006|pp=47-48}} |
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== Influence == |
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By explaining the teachings of bhakti yoga and Gaudiya Vaishnavism and arousing interest in them worldwide, Prabhupada made a lasting contribution.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|pp=136, 142}} Through his writings and his movement, many [[Western world|Westerners]] have become aware of ''bhakti'' for the first time.{{sfn|Basham|1983|p=174}} He translated and commented on important spiritual texts, particularly the ''Bhagavad-gita'', the ''Srimad-Bhagavatam'', and the ''Caitanya-caritamrta'', making these texts accessible to a global audience.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|p=140}} His commentaries brought the traditional wisdom of these writings into a contemporary context, making possible a deeper comprehension of their spiritual meaning and its practical application in one’s life.{{sfn|Hopkins|1983|pp=136, 142}} |
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[[File:1975 LA V V750078 CT069063.tif|thumb|360x360px|Prabhupada with J. Stillson Judah, scholar of religion, Los Angeles. (1975)]] |
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Although the “steady procession of Hindu swamis” who had come to America before Prabhupada had generally aligned their views with the monistic [[Advaita Vedanta]] of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] (AD 788‒820) and the idea of “the ultimate absorption of the self into an impersonal Reality or Brahman”,{{sfn|Judah|1974|p=19}} Prabhupada rejected Advaita Vedanta{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=6}} and coherently argued that the Absolute is ultimately the [[Svayam Bhagavan|Personality of Godhead]].{{sfn|Sherbow|2004|pp=140‒141}} |
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[[Ferdinando Sardella|Sardella]] has written that in the twelve years between Prabhupada’s arrival in America and his demise, Prabhupada “managed to build ISKCON into an institution comprising thousands of dedicated members, establish Caitanya Vaishnava temples in most of the world’s major cities, and publish numerous volumes of Caitanya Vaishnava texts (in twenty-eight languages), tens of millions of which were distributed throughout the world”.{{sfn|Sardella|2019|p=83}} Prabhupada also spread the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra worldwide.{{sfn|Sardella|2019|p=83}} |
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In 2013 Rochford wrote, “[T]he fact that ISKCON has survived for nearly 50 years, despite significant change, is a testament to the devotees’ resilience and to the power of Prabhupada’s teachings and vision for ISKCON”.{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2013|p=12}} |
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In India Prabhupada’s movement has become a well-respected institution, with recognition at all levels of Hindu society.{{sfn|Kazmin|1998}}{{sfn|Newsweek|2006}} ISKCON has large temple complexes active in cities like Mumbai, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Kolkata.{{sfn|Pandey|2020}}{{sfn|Popham|1998}} ISKCON’s center in Mayapur has become an Eastern Indian place of pilgrimage for millions every year. Thousands of middle-class Hindus, both in India and elsewhere, have joined ISKCON.{{sfn|Pandey|2020}} And Hindus both in India and in the [[Hinduism by country|Hindu diaspora]] have provided ISKCON vast support.{{sfn|Brekke|2019|p=84}}{{sfn|Newsweek|2006}} |
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But Prabhupada's legacy also faces scrutiny on various fronts. Criticisms have emerged regarding the movement's organizational structure, controversies have arisen surrounding continuity of leadership after his passing,{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2013|pp=35–37}}{{sfn|Nesti|2000|p=151}} and misdeeds and even criminal acts have been committed by some ISKCON members, including once-respected former leaders.{{sfn|Rose|2020|p=755}}{{efn|Sources that have discussed ISKCON’s post-charismatic crises and disruptions include Bryant and Ekstrand (2004), Dwyer and Cole (2007), and Rochford (2007).}} Concerns have been expressed about the movement's adaptability to modern values, especially concerning gender roles and societal norms.{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2013|pp=6–7}} And although ISKCON has benefited from the support and participation of a large and growing number of Indian families in its congregations outside India,{{sfn|Vellely|1998}}{{sfn|Kazmin|1998}} the “Hinduization” of ISKCON has in many places tended to diminish the involvement of other audiences.{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2013|pp=26–28}} |
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Nonetheless, Prabhupada's influence endures through his writings and ISKCON's ongoing activities. Despite significant setbacks, the movement he started continues to grow.{{sfn|Sardella|2012|p=247}} |
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== Recognition == |
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=== From scholars === |
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Kim Knott writes that scholars describe Prabhupada as a charismatic spiritual leader and emphasize his “humanity” and “uniqueness”.{{sfn|Knott|1997}} Prabhupada’s missionary successes in such a short period, and at such an advanced age, she writes, are extolled by scholars using terms such as “stunning”, “remarkable”, and “extraordinary”.{{sfn|Knott|1997}} In the same vein, [[Klaus Klostermaier]], scholar of Hinduism and Indian history, refers to Prabhupada as "probably, the most successful propagator of Hinduism abroad".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1998|p=183}} |
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Representing such thoughts, [[Harvey Cox]], American theologian and Professor of Divinity Emeritus at Harvard University, said: |
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<blockquote>There aren't many people you can think of who successfully implant a whole religious tradition in a completely alien culture. That's a rare achievement in the history of religion. In his case it's even all the more remarkable for his having done this at such an advanced age. When most people would have already retired, he began a whole new phase of his life by coming to the United States and initiating this movement. He began simply, with only a handful of disciples. Eventually he planted this movement deeply in the North American soil, throughout other parts of the European-dominated world, and beyond. Although I didn't know him personally, the fact that we now have in the West a vigorous, disciplined, and seemingly well-organized movement–not merely a philosophical movement or a yoga or meditation movement, but a genuinely religious movement--introducing the form of devotion to God that he taught, is a stunning accomplishment. So when I say [he’s] “one in a million,” I think that's in some ways an underestimate. Perhaps he was one in a hundred million.{{sfn|Cox|1983|pp=40-41}}</blockquote> |
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=== From officials === |
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Prabhupada's success in spreading [[Sanātana Dharma|Indian spirituality]] among non-Indians across the world brought him acclaim from Indian political leaders.{{sfn|Ivanenko|2008|pp=73-74}} |
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[[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Ministers]] [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], [[H. D. Deve Gowda|Deve Gowda]]{{sfn|Ivanenko|2008|p=43}}, [[Narendra Modi]], and [[President of India|Indian Presidents]] [[Shankar Dayal Sharma]] and [[Pranab Mukherjee]] have praised Prabhupada and his work.{{sfn|Ivanenko|2008|pp=73-74}} |
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In 1998, speaking at the opening ceremony of an ISKCON temple in New Delhi, Prime Minister Vajpayee said: |
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<blockquote>"If today the Bhagavad Gita is printed in millions of copies in scores of Indian languages and distributed in all nooks and corners of the world, the credit for this great sacred service goes chiefly to ISKCON.... For this one accomplishment alone, Indians should be eternally grateful to the devoted spiritual army of Swami Prabhupada's followers. The voyage of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to the United States in 1965 and the spectacular popularity his movement gained in a very short spell of twelve years must be regarded as one of the greatest spiritual events of the century".{{sfn|Pandey|2020}}</blockquote> |
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[[File:PM Narendra Modi on 125th birth of Prabhupada (Hindi with English subtitles ).webm|thumb|[[Narendra Modi]] speaks on Prabhupada's 125th birth anniversary. (2 September 2021){{sfn|Modi|2021b}}|280x280px|left]] |
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Releasing a 125-[[Indian rupee|rupee]] commemorative coin on the occasion of Prabhupada's 125th birth anniversary,{{sfn|India Govt Mint|2021}} Prime Minister Modi praised Prabhupada for his efforts “to give India’s most priceless treasure to the world” and said that what Prabhupada was able to accomplish in spreading the thought and philosophy of India to the world “was nothing less than a miracle.”{{sfn|Modi|2021b}} |
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On the fiftieth anniversary of Prabhupada’s voyage to the West, [[United States Congress|US Congresswoman]] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] praised the "compassion that drove Srila Prabhupada to attempt something so brave and so daring to deliver the message of Lord Chaitanya and the Holy Name to all of mankind".{{sfn|Gabbard|2015}} |
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== Commemoration == |
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=== Shrines, memorials, museums === |
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[[File:Samadhi Mandir of Srila Prabhupada (front), Mayapur 07102013.jpg|alt=A tall ornate domed structure, topped with a spear and flanked by green lush trees.|thumb|280x280px|''Pushpa-samadhi'' of Prabhupada in [[Mayapur]], [[West Bengal]].]] |
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In keeping with [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|''Gaudiya-Vaisnava'']] rites, after Prabhupada's death at the [[ISKCON Temple, Vrindavan|Krishna-Balarama temple]] in [[Vrindavan]] ([[Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh, India]]), his disciples interred his body on the temple premises and erected a marble ''[[Samadhi (shrine)|samadhi]]'', or shrine, over his burial site.{{sfn|New York Times|1977}}{{sfn|Dwyer|Cole|2013|p=38}} In [[Mayapur]] ([[West Bengal]]), they built a much larger ''pushpa-samadhi'' — a shrine sanctified with flowers from Prabhupada's burial ceremony.{{sfn|Silva da Silveira|2014}} Daily ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' (traditional worship) is offered to larger-than-life statues of Prabhupada at both sites.{{sfn|Silva da Silveira|2014}} |
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Another shrine is dedicated to Prabhupada in [[New Vrindaban]] ([[West Virginia|West Virginia, USA]]), where a residence built to host Prabhupada during his occasional visits evolved into the elaborate Prabhupada's Palace of Gold.{{sfn|Bromley|Shinn|1989|p=199}} After opening to the public in 1979, two years after Prabhupada’s death, the memorial site is now a place of worship and an attraction for pilgrims and tourists,{{sfn|McCarthy|2013}} listed in America’s [[National Register of Historic Places]].{{sfn|Hanz|2023}} Other rooms in which Prabhupada stayed while in Vrindavan, Mumbai, Los Angeles, London, Melbourne and several other places around the world have been preserved as museums. |
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[[[File:Prabhupada's birth site in Kolkata.jpg|alt=A black rectangular pedestal with an inscription, topped by a white ornate marble slab draped with a flower garland, standing under a double-branched tree.|left|thumb|200x200px|Prabhupada's birthplace.]] |
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Prabhupada’s birthplace, in the [[Tollygunge]] neighborhood of Kolkata, was inaugurated as a memorial site in 2001, on the 125th anniversary of Prabhupada’s birth, by [[List of chief ministers of West Bengal|West Bengal Chief Minister]] [[Mamata Banerjee]].{{sfn|Pandey|2021}} In the [[Ultadanga]] neighborhood of Kolkata, the building, known as Bhaktivinode Asan where Prabhupada first met his guru, [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]], has also been restored as a heritage site.{{sfn|Banerjee|2022}} |
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[[File:Prabhupada family and Jaladuta monument.jpg|thumb|360x360px|left|Prabhupada's son Vrindavan Chandra De (back, in red shirt) in front of the ''Jaladuta'' monument with his family (standing) and the monument's team (seated, left to right): concept director, manager, and [[:uk:Журавель Володимир Миколайович|sculptor]]. ISKCON Kolkata. (August 2015)]] |
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On August 13, 2015, the fiftieth anniversary of Prabhupada’s departure from Kolkata to the United States, a two-meter-high bronze monument, created by Ukrainian sculptor [[:uk:Журавель Володимир Миколайович|Volodymyr Zhuravel]], was unveiled in Kolkata by the [[List of governors of West Bengal|Governor of West Bengal]] [[Keshari Nath Tripathi]] and [[List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry|Lieutenant Governor of Pondicherry]] [[Kiran Bedi]].{{sfn|Jaisinghani|2015}} The monument was created in two parts — one depicting Prabhupada’s departure for America, the other his arrival. After the monument was unveiled, the “departure” part was installed at the ISKCON temple in Kolkata, the “arrival” part in front of the ISKCON temple in Boston.{{sfn|Smullen|2018}} |
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=== Biographies, memoirs, diaries === |
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In 2008 Ketola wrote that there were more than thirty historical, biographical, and autobiographical works centering on Prabhupada.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=8}} Since then they have increased. |
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Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami’s official six-volume biography ''Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta'' (“carefully researched”, Ketola reports{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=8}}) has more recently been joined by a shorter biography, ''Swami in a Strange Land'', by Joshua Greene.{{sfn|Patel|2018|pp=179-181}} Both authors are Prabhupada’s disciples. Among memoirs that focus on specific times or places, Ketola mentions several, including Hayagriva Dasa’s ''The Hare Krishna Explosion''.{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=8}}) |
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Ketola also notes two published diaries kept by direct assistants of Prabhupada: Tamal Krishna Goswami’s ''TKG’s Diary'' and Hari Sauri Dasa’s multi-volume ''Transcendental Diary''.{{efn|E. Burke Rochford writes in his Foreword to one volume, “For scholars and students of religion the material presented represents a critically important historical record”. Foreword to A Transcendental Diary: November 1975–April 1976, p. xv{{sfn|Ketola|2008|p=9}}}} |
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{{Collapsible list |
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|expand = |
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|bullets = on |
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|title = List of biographical publications about A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada |
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|framestyle = border: none |
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|titlestyle = color:darkblue |
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|''Ācārya: The Lifestory of A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada'' by Bhaktisiddhanta Das (2021), {{ASIN|B095PTSKC7}} |
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|''Ācārya: Portraits of His Divine Grace A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada'' by Sesa Dasa (1996), {{ISBN|978-0947259051}} |
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|''Blazing Sadhus'' by Achyutananda Das (2016), {{ISBN|978-1537508863}} |
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|''By His Example: The Wit and Wisdom of A.{{nbsp}}C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada'' by Guru Das (2004), {{ISBN|978-1887089364}} |
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|''Chasing Rhinos With The Swami'' by Shyamasundar Das (2016), in 3 volumes, {{ISBN|978-1495177088}} |
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|''Dancing White Elephants: Traveling with Srila Prabhupada in India, August 1970—March 1972'' by [[Giriraja Swami|Giriraj Swami]] (2023), {{ISBN|978-1-925850-03-1}} |
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|''Five Years, Eleven Months and a Lifetime of Unexpected Love: A Memoir'' by Visakha Dasi (2016), {{ISBN|978-1522838449}} |
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|''The Great Transcendental Adventure: Pastimes of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in Australia and New Zealand by Kurma Dasa (1999),'' {{ISBN|9780947259228}} |
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|''The Hare Krishna Explosion: The Birth of Krishna Consciousness in America, 1966‒1969'' by Hayagriva Dasa (1985), {{ISBN|9780932215017}} |
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|''He Lives Forever'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2022), {{ISBN|979-8353149606}} |
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|''I'll Build You a Temple — The Juhu Story'' by [[Giriraja Swami|Giriraj Swami]] (2021), {{ISBN|978-1925850017}} |
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|''In Conversation with Srila Prabhupada'' by Lokanath Swami (2016), {{ASIN|B09HKRBMHG}} |
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|''ISKCON in the 1970s'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (1997), {{ISBN|978-0911233728}} |''Jaya Srila Prabhupada!'' by Bhakti Vikasa Swami (2014), {{ISBN|978-9382109112}} |
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|''Journey to the Pacific Rim'' by Bali Mardan Das, {{ISBN|9788193291801}} |
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|''Life with the Perfect Master: A Personal Servant's Account'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2022), {{ISBN|979-8411706741}} |
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|''Memories – Anecdotes of a Modern–Day Saint'' by Siddhanta Dasa (2020), in 4 volumes {{ISBN|9788192970226|9780972259712|9789389050806}} |
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|''Miracle on Second Avenue'' by [[Mukunda Goswami]] (2011), {{ISBN|978-0981727349}} |
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|''Mission in the Service of His Divine Grace: Birth of of the Hare Krsna Movement in South Africa'' by Riddha Dasa (2003), {{ISBN|978-1901593013}} |
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|''The Mayapur Vrindavan Festivals with Srila Prabhupada (1972‒77)'' by Lokanath Swami (2020), {{ISBN|9780620694827}} |
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|''My Days with Prabhupada: A Young Man’s Path to God in the Hare Krishna Movement'' by Umapati Swami (2016), {{ASIN|B01EVBQ6M4}} |
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|''My Glorious Master: Remembrances of Prabhupada's Mercy on a Fallen Soul'' by Bhurijana Dasa (1996), {{ISBN|9780992521943}} |
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|''My Memories of Srila Prabhupada'' by Bhakti Vikasa Swami (2012), {{ISBN|978-9382109303}} |
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|''Ocean of Mercy'' by [[Bhakti Charu Swami]] (2016), {{ISBN|978-0892135332}} |
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|''Our Srila Prabhupada — A Friend to All'' by Mulaprakrti Devi (2000), {{ASIN|B004Q6XSXA }} |
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| ''A Place of Sandalwood and Roses,'' by Govinda Dasi (2023), {{ISBN|979-8987382912}} |
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|''Prabhupada Antya-lila: Final Pastimes of Srila Prabhupada'' by [[Tamal Krishna Goswami]] (1988), {{ISBN|978-0936979014}} |
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|''Prabhupada Appreciation'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2022), {{ISBN|979-8357966339}} |
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|''Prabhupada at Radha-Damodara'' by Mahanidhi Swami (2013), {{ASIN|B00CTRMKKK}} |
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|''Prabhupãda in Malaysia ''by Janananda Das Goswami (2020), {{ISBN|978-8193859711}} |
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|''Prabhupada-lila'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami]] (1987), {{ISBN|978-0911233360}} |
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|''Prabhupada Meditations'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2023) in 2 volumes, {{ISBN|979-8446353095}} |
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|''Prabhupada: Messenger Of The Supreme Lord'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Sastvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2014), {{ISBN|978-8189574307}} |
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|''Prabhupāda Nectar: Anecdotes from the Life of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada ''by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (1984), {{ISBN|9780911233223}} |
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|''Prabhupada Stories'' by Govinda Dasi |
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|''Servant of the Servant'' by [[Tamal Krishna Goswami]] (2019), {{ISBN|9788193992166}} |
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|''Srila Prabhupada and His Disciples in Germany'' by Bhakti Gauravani Goswami (2021), {{ISBN|9789391545048}} |
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|''Srila Prabhupada is Coming: My Personal Memories of His Divine Grace, A.C. Bhaktivehanta Swami Prabhupada'' by Mahamaya Dasi (2000), {{ISBN|9780970453013}} |
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|''Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (2008), in 7 volumes, {{ISBN|978-8189574222}} |
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|''Srila Prabhupada Uvaca'' by Srutakirti Dasa |
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|''Swami in a Strange Land'' by Joshua M. Greene (Yogeshvara Dasa) (2018), {{ISBN|9789387944091}} |
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|''TKG's Diary: Prabhupãda's Final Days'' by [[Tamal Krishna Goswami]] (1999), {{ISBN|9788187216124}} |
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|''A Transcendental Diary'' by Hari Sauri Dasa (2021), in 5 volumes, {{ISBN|978-1880404379}} |''Vrindaban Days: Memories of an Indian Holy Town'' by Howard Wheeler (Hayagriva Swami) (1990) {{ISBN|9780932215208}} |
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|''With Srila Prabhupada in the Early Days (1966‒1969): A Memoir'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]] (1997), {{ISBN|978-0911233841}} |
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|''"You Cannot Leave Boston"'' by [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami]], in 2 volumes (1998) {{ASIN|B09HKSY9L7}} |
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}} |
}} |
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=== Film, and filmed memoir collections === |
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* {{cite book |
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|title={{IAST|Vairāgya-vidyā}} |
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In 1996 Gaurav Seth produced the fifty-five-minute biographical film ''Prabhupada: A Lifetime in Preparation''.{{sfn|IMDb|1996}} In 2017 John Griesser, a Prabhupada disciple, produced an uncritical 91-minute film: ''Hare Krishna! The Mantra, the Movement, and the Swami who started it All''.{{sfn|Jenkins|2017}} |
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|language=bn |
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|date=1977 |
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Disciples have also undertaken two video projects collecting memories of Srila Prabhupada, one entitled ''Remembering Srila Prabhupada'',{{sfn|PrabhupadaMemories}} the other ''Following Srila Prabhupada''.{{sfn|TheTVDB}} |
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The Bhaktivedanta Archives, in North Carolina, serves as a repository for Srila Prabhupada’s manuscripts and letters, for photographs of Srila Prabhupada, and for audio recordings.{{efn|1=https://www.prabhupada.com/About/AAbout.html. Claire C. Robison describes the Archives, though not by name, in “ISKCON–Christian Encounters,” Chapter 16 in The Routledge Handbook of Hindu-Christian Relations. p=194}} |
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{{multiple image |
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| width = 140 |
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| footer = 125-[[Indian rupee|rupee]] commemorative coin released by [[Narendra Modi]] on Prabhupada's 125th birth anniversary. |
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| image1 = Front side of Rs 125 commemorative coin for Prabhupada's 125th birth.jpg |
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| image2 = Back side of Rs 125 commemorative coin for Prabhupada's 125th birth.jpg |
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}} |
}} |
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: A collection of his early Bengali essays, which were originally printed in a monthly magazine that he edited called {{IAST|Gauḍīya Patrika}}. Starting in 1976, [[Bhakti Charu Swami]] reprinted these essays in Bengali language booklets called {{IAST|Bhagavāner Kathā}} (Knowledge of the Supreme) [from 1948 & 1949 issues], {{IAST|Bhakti Kathā}} (The Science of Devotion), {{IAST|Jñāna Kathā}} (Topics of Spiritual Science), {{IAST|Muni-gānera Mati-bhrama}} (The Deluded Thinkers), and ''Buddhi-yoga'' (The Highest Use of Intelligence), which he later combined into ''Vairāgya-vidyā''. In 1992, an English translation was published called ''Renunciation Through Wisdom''.<ref>{{cite book|author=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|date=1992|title=Renunciation Through Wisdom|url=https://archive.org/details/renunciationthro0000acbh/page/n8/mode/1up|translator=Bhakti Charu Swami|translator-link=Bhakti Charu Swami|trans-title={{IAST|Vairagya Vidyā}}|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]]|isbn=0-947259-04-X|lccn=95120622|oclc=30848069|pages=vii-viii}}</ref> |
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=== Stamps, coin, and plaque === |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Buddhi-yoga |
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In 1996 the [[Government of India]] issued a commemorative stamp in Prabhupada’s honor and in 2021 a 125-[[Indian rupee|rupee]] commemorative coin.{{sfn|Times of India, September 13, 2021}} |
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|language=bn |
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In 2001 the City of New York installed a plaque in [[Tompkins Square Park]] to mark the “Hare Krishna tree”, the [[elm]] under which Prabhupada and his early followers first began chanting the ''Hare Krishna mantra'' in 1966.{{sfn|Tompkins Square Park |1966}} |
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[[File:TompkinsHareKrishnaTree.JPG|left|thumb|280x280px|The plaque near the Hare Krishna Tree in [[Tompkins Square Park]], New York.]] |
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=== Schools === |
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Various ISKCON-related schools and other institutions have been named after Srila Prabhupada, including the Bhaktivedanta Research Centre in Kolkata, which holds a full collection of the works of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati as well as publications from the first twenty years of the Gaudiya Math.{{sfn|Sardella|2019|pp=85–86}} |
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=== Roads === |
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In 1978 a prominent entrance road into Vrindavan was named Bhaktivedanta Swami Marg after Prabhupada.{{sfn|Pandey|2019}} |
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== 12. Bibliography == |
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=== Translations with commentary === |
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* Bhagavad-gītā As It Is, {{ISBN|9780892131341}} |
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* Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana) (multiple volumes) {{ISBN|9789177693000}} (completed by disciples) |
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* Śrī Īśopaniṣad, {{ISBN|9780892131389}} |
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* Sri Caitanya-caritamrta (multiple volumes), {{ISBN|9780947259068}} |
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* The Nectar of Instruction, {{ISBN|9780912776859}} |
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=== Summary studies === |
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* Teachings of Lord Caitanya, {{ISBN|9780912776088}} |
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* Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead (multiple volumes), {{ISBN|9780892133338}} |
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* The Nectar of Devotion, {{ISBN|9780912776057}} |
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=== Other books === |
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* Easy Journey to Other Planets (1990), {{ISBN|9780912776101}} |
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* The Perfection of Yoga, {{ISBN|9780912776361}} |
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* Beyond Birth and Death, {{ISBN|9780912776415}} |
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* On the Way to Kṛṣṇa, {{ISBN|9780912776392}} |
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* Rājā-vidyā: The King of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-1602930094}} |
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* Elevation to Kṛṣṇa Consciousness, {{ISBN|9780912776439}} |
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* Kṛṣṇa Consciousness: The Matchless Gift, {{ISBN|9780912776613}} |
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* Kṛṣṇa Consciousness: The Topmost Yoga System, {{ISBN|9780912776118}} |
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* Perfect Questions, Perfect Answers, {{ISBN|9780912776620}} |
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* Teachings of Lord Kapila, the Son of Devahūtī, {{ISBN|9789383095988}} |
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* The Science of Self-Realization, {{ISBN|9781845990398}} |
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=== Posthumously published === |
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* Mukunda-mala-stotra: The Prayers of King Kulasekhara, {{ISBN|9780892132751}} (completed by disciples) |
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* Narada-bhakti-sutra, {{ISBN|9780892132737}} (completed by disciples) |
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* Light of the Bhagavata, {{ISBN|9789171492678}} |
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* Message of Godhead, {{ISBN|9780892132997}} |
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* Renunciation Through Wisdom, {{ISBN|9780947259044}} |
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* Beyond Illusion and Doubt, {{ISBN|9780892133369}} |
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* Teachings of Queen Kunti, {{ISBN|9780892131020}} |
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* Civilization And Transcendence, {{ISBN|9780892132980}} |
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* Dharma, The Way Of Transcendence, {{ISBN|9780892133260}} |
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* Kṛṣṇa, the Reservoir of Pleasure, {{ISBN|9780892131495}} |
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* The Path of Perfection, {{ISBN|9789382176510}} |
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* The Quest for Enlightenment, {{ISBN|9780892132928}} |
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==Notes== |
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{{notelist}} |
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==Citations== |
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{{reflist|20em}} |
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==References== |
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=== Academic and documentary === |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Anderson |
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|first = John |
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|title = The Hare Krishna Movement in the USSR |
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|journal = Religion in Communist Lands |
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|volume = 14 |
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|issue = 3 |
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|year = 1986 |
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|publisher = Puebla Institute |
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|pages = 316-317 |
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|isbn = 978-0945102038 |
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|doi = 10.1080/09637498608431277 |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{cite book |
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*{{citation |
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|title=Bhakti-ratna-boli |
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|last1 = Anuttama Dasa |
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|language=bn |
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|last2 = Mukunda Goswami |
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|author2-link = Mukunda Goswami |
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|chapter = On Staying in ISKCON: Personal Story IV |
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|pages = 404-415 |
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|editor1-last = Bryant |
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|editor1-first = Edwin F. |
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|editor1-link = Edwin Bryant (Indologist) |
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|editor2-last = Ekstrand |
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|editor2-first = Maria L. |
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|title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |
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|year = 2004 |
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|publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] |
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|place = New York |
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|isbn = 978-0231122566 |
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}} |
}} |
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*{{citation |
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===Translations with commentary=== |
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|editor-last = Asher |
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* {{cite book |
|||
|editor-first = Catherine |
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|title=Srimad Bhagwatam |
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|title = Reference Encyclopaedia India 2001 |
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|volume=3 vols. |
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|volume = 1 |
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|location=Delhi |
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|year = 1995 |
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|publisher=League of Devotees |
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|publisher = South Asia Publications |
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|date=1962–1965 |
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|place = Columbia, MO |
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|lccn=sa64001457 |
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|isbn = 9780945921424 |
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|oclc=64215631 |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{cite Q|Q854700|display-translators=0 |
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*{{citation |
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|location=New York |
|||
|last = Baird |
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|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |
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|first = Robert D. |
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|editor-last = Neville |
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|editor-first = Robert C. |
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|title = Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Bhagavadgita As It is |
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|work = Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita |
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|series = SUNY Series in Religious Studies |
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|pages = 200-221 |
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|publisher = [[State University of New York Press]] |
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|publication-date= 15 October 1986 |
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|place = Albany, NY |
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|url = https://archive.org/details/modernindianinte0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up |
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|isbn = 9780887062971 |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{cite Q|Q108771214|display-translators=0 |
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*{{citation |
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|location=Boston, Mass. |
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|last = Baird |
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|publisher=ISKCON Books |
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|first = Robert D. |
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|title = The Response of Swami Bhaktivedanta |
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|work = Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism |
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|editor1-last = Coward |
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|editor1-first = Harold G. |
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|publisher = [[State University of New York Press]] |
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|place = Albany, NY |
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|year = 1987 |
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|isbn = 9780887065729 |
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|url = https://archive.org/details/modernindianresp0000unse_a2y9 |
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}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
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*{{citation |
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|title={{IAST|Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam}} |
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| |
|last = Baird |
||
|first = Robert D. |
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|location=New York |
|||
|title = ISKCON and the Struggle for Legitimation |
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|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |
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|journal = Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library |
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|date=1972–1977 |
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|year = 1988 |
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|lccn=73169353 |
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|issue = 3 #70 |
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|pages = 157-170 |
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|issn = 0301-102X |
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|url = https://www.manchesterhive.com/view/journals/bjrl/70/3/article-p157.xml |
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}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite Q|Q108771289|display-translators=0 |
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*{{citation |
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|volume=17 vols. |
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|last = Basham |
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|location=New York |
|||
|first = Arthur L. |
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|date=1973–1975 |
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|author-link = Arthur Llewellyn Basham |
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|title = Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna: Five Distinguished Scholars on the Krishna Movement in the West |
|||
|editor-last = Gelberg |
|||
|editor-first = Steven J. |
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|year = 1983 |
|||
|publisher = [[Grove Press]] |
|||
|pages = 162-195 |
|||
|isbn = 9780394624549 |
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|url = https://archive.org/details/harekrishnaharek00gelb |
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}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
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*{{citation |
|||
|title=[[Upadesamrta|The Nectar of Instruction]] |
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| |
|last = Beck |
||
|first = Guy L. |
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|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |
|||
|title = Gaudiya Vaishnavism and ISKCON: An Anthology of Scholarly Perspectives |
|||
|date=1975 |
|||
|editor-last = Rosen |
|||
|lccn=75039755 |
|||
|editor-first = Steven J. |
|||
|editor-link = Steven J. Rosen |
|||
|publisher = Rasbhiharilal and Sons |
|||
|place = Vrindavana |
|||
|pages = 459-472 |
|||
|year = 2007 |
|||
|isbn = 9788184030297 |
|||
|url = https://archive.org/details/GVAndISKCON |
|||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
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*{{citation |
|||
|title={{IAST|Teachings of Lord Kapila, the Son of Devahūtī}} |
|||
|last = Beckford |
|||
|location=New York |
|||
|first = James A. |
|||
|publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |
|||
|title = Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements |
|||
|date=1977 |
|||
|publisher = [[Tavistock Publications]] |
|||
|lccn=77011077 |
|||
|place = London, New York |
|||
|year = 1985 |
|||
|isbn = 9780422796309 |
|||
|url = https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/144078338602200319 |
|||
}} |
}} |
||
*{{citation |
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|last1 = Berg |
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|first1 = Travis Vande |
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|last2 = Kniss |
|||
|first2 = Fred |
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|year = 2008 |
|||
|title = ISKCON and Immigrants: The Rise, Decline, and Rise Again of a New Religious Movement |
|||
|journal = [[The Sociological Quarterly]] |
|||
|volume = 49 |
|||
|number = 1 |
|||
|pages = 79-104 |
|||
|doi = 10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00107.x |
|||
}} |
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*{{citation |
|||
|last = Bhat |
|||
|first = N. Suman |
|||
|title = Torch-Bearers of Krishna Cult |
|||
|year = 2005 |
|||
|publisher = Sura Books |
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|isbn = 9788174785428 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
|||
|editor1-last = Bromley |
|||
|editor1-first = David G. |
|||
|editor1-link = David G. Bromley |
|||
|editor2-last = Shinn |
|||
|editor2-first = Larry |
|||
|editor2-link = Larry Shinn |
|||
|title = Krishna Consciousness in the West |
|||
|edition = First |
|||
|place = Lewisburg, PA |
|||
|publisher = [[Associated University Presses]] |
|||
|year = 1989 |
|||
|isbn = 9780838751442 |
|||
|url = https://archive.org/details/krishnaconscious0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last1 = Bromley |
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|first1 = David G. |
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|author-link = David G. Bromley |
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|last2 = Shupe |
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|first2 = Anson D. |
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<!--Only references that are actually used and cited in the article should be |
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|first = Robert Ernest |
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placed here. List only books and journals (not websites of newspaper sources). |
|||
|author-link = Robert Ernest Hume |
|||
Try maintaining a standard formatting style and add ISBN numbers if possible. |
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|title = Thirteen Principal Upanishads |
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See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cite_sources for further details.--> |
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|place = England |
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|title = The Perils of Succession: Heresies of Authority and Continuity In the Hare Krishna Movement |
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|chapter = Krishna in Mleccha Desh: ISKCON Temple Worship in Historical Perspective |
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|pages = 45-60 |
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|editor-last = Bryant |
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|editor-first = Edwin F. |
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|editor-link = Edwin Bryant (Indologist) |
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|editor2-last = Ekstrand |
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|title = The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |
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|year = 2010 |
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|series = The New and Alternative Religions Series |
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}} |
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|chapter = Food Practices, Culture, and Social Dynamics in the Hare Krishna Movement |
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|editor-last = Hammer |
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|editor-first = Olav |
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|pages = 681–702 |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
|||
=== Media === |
|||
==== News ==== |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
{{refbegin|30em}} |
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| year = 2004 |
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| |
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| editor-first = David G |
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| pages = 123–140 |
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| isbn = 978-0-86554-238-9 |
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| access-date = 25 October 2020 |
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| archive-date = 22 April 2023 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165944/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHNeOx8UZJYC&q=New+Vrindavan%5D%5D+in+West+Virginia&pg=PA123 |
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| url-status = live |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{cite journal |
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| last = Knott |
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| |
|last = Kazmin |
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|first = Amy Louise |
|||
| year = 1997 |
|||
|title = The Hare Krishnas caught up with me in New Delhi |
|||
| title = Insider and outsider perceptions of Prabhupada |
|||
|date = 25 April 1998 |
|||
| journal = [[ISKCON Communications Journal]] |
|||
|newspaper = [[Financial Times]] |
|||
| pages = 5: 1 |
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|url = https://archive.org/stream/FinancialTimes1998UKEnglish/Apr%2025%201998%2C%20Financial%20Times%2C%20%2325%2C%20UK%20%28en%29_djvu.txt |
|||
| url = http://content.iskcon.org/icj/5_1/5_1knott.html |
|||
|quote = At the ceremony, [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]] praised devotees for their work towards 'the globalisation of the Gita'. He cited the rapid spread of the movement as proof of 'the disillusionment of leading western minds' with 'materialist ideologies that are incapable of satisfying the real needs of man'. For the Hare Krishnas, long dismissed as fringe weirdos, it was the ultimate stamp of legitimacy. |
|||
| access-date = 26 November 2011 |
|||
}} |
|||
| archive-date = 4 March 2016 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304212259/http://content.iskcon.org/icj/5_1/5_1knott.html |
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*{{citation |
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| url-status = live |
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|first = Ben |
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|title = Russians kick up an unholy row over holy book |
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|title = Can Hare Krishnas at Palace of Gold in W.Va. rebuild its tarnished community? |
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| title = Review: Srila Prabhupada-Lilamrta |
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|newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] |
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| journal = Journal of Asian Studies |
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|date = 11 January 2013 |
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| volume = 42 |
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|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/can-hare-krishnas-at-palace-of-gold-in-wva-rebuild-its-tarnished-community/2013/01/04/38dbf6a8-ebc8-11e1-a80b-9f898562d010_story.html |
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|title = Moscow courts had dismissed Gita cases |
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| title = Encyclopaedia Indica |
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|newspaper = [[The Times of India]] |
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* {{cite book |
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*{{citation |
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| last1 = Shinn |
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|last = Newsweek |
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| first1 = Larry D. |
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|title = Beliefwatch: Krishnas' New Look |
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| author-link1 = Larry Shinn |
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|magazine = [[Newsweek]] |
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| last2 = Bromley |
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| |
|date = 23 July 2006 |
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|url = https://www.newsweek.com/beliefwatch-krishnas-new-look-112457 |
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| author-link2 = David G. Bromley |
|||
|quote = [Hare Krishnas] are now part of the culture in ways that the average person couldn't have imagined some 20 or 25 years ago. ... ISKCON communities offer premarital counseling, interfaith activities, social-service programs and baby-sitting—just the kind of institutional structure that many early converts were fleeing. |
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| title = Krishna consciousness in the West |
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}} |
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| publisher = Bucknell University Press |
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| location = Lewisburg [Pa.] |
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*{{citation |
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| year = 1989 |
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|last = New York Times |
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| isbn = 0-8387-5144-X |
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|title = Swami Prabhupada, 'Hare Krishna', Dead |
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|newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |
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|page = 2 |
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|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1977/11/16/archives/swami-prabhupada-hare-krishna-head-founder-of-movement-81-came-to.html |
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|date = 16 November 1977 |
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|access-date = 12 February 2024 |
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}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite web |url=https://singdancepray.com/ |title=Sing, Dance and Pray: The Inspirational story of Srila Prabhupada |publisher=Singdancepray.com |date= |accessdate=19 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719140710/https://singdancepray.com/ |url-status=live }} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Nordheimer |
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|first = Jon |
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|title = Young Ascetics Honor Lord Krishna |
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|newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |
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|date = 6 September 1972 |
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|page = 47 |
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|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1972/09/06/archives/young-ascetics-honor-lord-krishna-young-members-of-ascetic-sect.html |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Pandey |
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|first = Jhimli Mukherjee |
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|title = Iskcon complaint gets UP to revoke road name rejig |
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|newspaper = [[The Times of India]] |
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|place = Kolkata, India |
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|date = 11 July 2019 |
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|url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/iskcon-complaint-gets-up-to-revoke-road-name-rejig/articleshow/70166126.cms |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Pandey |
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|first = Jhimli Mukherjee |
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|title = Iskcon acquires founder’s birthplace in Tollygunge, West Bengal CM unveils ‘spiritual park’ |
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|newspaper = [[The Times of India]] |
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|place = Kolkata, India |
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|date = 2 September 2021 |
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|url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/iskcon-acquires-founders-birthplace-in-tollygunge-cm-unveils-spiritual-park/articleshow/85846413.cms |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Pandey |
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|first = Kirti |
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|title = AC Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada Swami birth anniversary: Krishna devotee who founded the million-strong ISKCON |
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|work = [[Times Now]] |
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|date = 1 September 2020 |
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|url = https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/religion/article/ac-bhaktivedanta-prabhupada-swami-birth-anniversary-krishna-devotee-who-founded-the-million-strong-iskcon/645946 |
|||
|quote = "If today the Bhagavad Gita is printed in millions of copies in scores of Indian languages and distributed in all nooks and corners of the world, the credit for this great sacred service goes chiefly to ISKCON. ... For this one accomplishment alone, Indians should be eternally grateful to the devoted spiritual army of Swami Prabhupada's followers. The voyage of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to the United States in 1965 and the spectacular popularity his movement gained in a very short spell of twelve years must be regarded as one of the greatest spiritual events of the century." |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Popham |
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|first = Peter |
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|title = India's PM takes to robots for Krishna |
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|newspaper = [[The Independent]] |
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|date = 12 April 1998 |
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|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/india-s-pm-takes-to-robots-for-krishna-1156126.html |
|||
|quote = "Some people say my government is opposed to globalisation. But let me say I am all in favour of the globalisation of the message of the Bhagavad Gita. ... What we need today is the application on a national scale of the work-related ideology of the Bhagavad Gita. This will create a new work culture, and a new work culture will create a new India." |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Press Trust of India |
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|title = Devotees from 106 countries practice yoga to mark ISKCON |
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|newspaper = [[Business Standard]] |
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|place = Kolkata |
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|date = 13 August 2015 |
|||
|url = https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/devotees-from-106-countries-practice-yoga-to-mark-iskcon-50th-115081302009_1.html |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = PTI |
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|title = PM Modi releases special commemorative coin on ISKCON founder's 125th birth anniversary |
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|newspaper = [[Times of India]] |
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|date = 1 September 2021 |
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|archive-date = 13 September 2021 |
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|access-date = 13 September 2021 |
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|url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-releases-special-commemorative-coin-on-iskcon-founders-125th-birth-anniversary/articleshow/85835377.cms |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210913032001/https:/timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-releases-special-commemorative-coin-on-iskcon-founders-125th-birth-anniversary/articleshow/85835377.cms |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Ritts |
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|first = Penny |
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|title = Devotee of Hindu Cult Explains Commission to Visit the West |
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|newspaper = [[Butler Eagle]] |
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|place = Butler, PA |
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|date = 22 September 1965 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Schumach |
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|first = Murray |
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|title = Judge Rejects Charges of ‘Brainwashing’ Against Hare Krishna Aides |
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|newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |
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|date = 18 March 1977 |
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|page = 24 |
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|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/18/archives/judge-rejects-charges-of-brainwashing-against-hare-krishna-aides.html |
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|access-date = 9 February 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Sikes |
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|first = James R. |
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|title = Swami's Flock Chants in Park to Find Ecstasy |
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|newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |
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|date = 10 October 1966 |
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|page = 24 |
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|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1966/10/10/archives/swamis-flock-chants-in-park-to-find-ecstasy-50-followers-clap-and.html |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Surrealist |
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|title = Children of ISKCON vs.ISKCON Timeline |
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|url = https://surrealist.org/gurukula/timeline/lawsuit.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180209234239/http:/surrealist.org/gurukula/timeline/lawsuit.html |
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|archive-date = 9 February 2018 |
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|access-date = 22 July 2018 |
|||
}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Taylor |
|||
|first = Robert |
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|title = The Search for the Godhead in Boston |
|||
|newspaper = [[The Boston Globe|Boston Sunday Globe]] |
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|date = 27 April 1969 |
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|url = https://bostonglobe.newspapers.com/image/434626807/ |
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|url-access = subscription |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
|||
|last = The Wall |
|||
|title = AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Memorial Award Has Been Launched |
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|website = The Wall |
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|date = 28 February 2023 |
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|url = https://www.thewall.in/west-bengal/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-memorial-award-has-been-launched/tid/96550 |
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|access-date = 20 October 2023 |
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|language = Bengali |
|||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230422165943/https:/www.thewall.in/news/ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-memorial-award-has-been-launched |
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|archive-date = 22 April 2023 |
|||
}} |
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*{{citation |
|||
|last = Tompkins Square Park |
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|title = Tompkins Square Park Highlights |
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|website = Hare Krishna Tree : NYC Parks |
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|date = 9 October 1966 |
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|url = https://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/tompkins-square-park/highlights/10823 |
|||
|access-date = 20 October 2023 |
|||
}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Uncut |
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|title = George Harrison Memorial Garden opens to the public |
|||
|website = Uncut |
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|url = https://www.uncut.co.uk/news/george-harrison-memorial-garden-opens-to-the-public-22326/ |
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|date = 29 May 2013 |
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|access-date = 18 March 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Vallely |
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|first = Paul |
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|title = Spirit of the Age: Rebirth of an ancient religion |
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|newspaper = [[The Independent]] |
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|date = 21 November 1998 |
|||
|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/spirit-of-the-age-rebirth-of-an-ancient-religion-1186213.html |
|||
|quote = [T]here is a growing sense that the Hare Krishnas are forming a useful bridge to Britain's Indian community - and at the same time becoming reasonable and articulate exponents to the English of the Vedic way. Perhaps the Hare Krishnas are coming of age. |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Vanina |
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|first = Elena |
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|title = Dangers of putting Gita on trial |
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|newspaper = Russia & India Report |
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|date = 23 December 2011 |
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|url = https://www.rbth.com/articles/2011/12/23/dangers_of_putting_gita_on_trial_14075 |
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|access-date = 6 February 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Попова |
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|first = Анна |
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|title = На поле дхармы |
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|newspaper = Lenta.ru |
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|language = Russian |
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|date = 28 December 2011 |
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|url = https://lenta.ru/articles/2011/12/28/iskcon/ |
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|access-date = 28 December 2011 |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
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==== Officials ==== |
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==External links== |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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{{Commons category|Prabhupada}} |
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<!-- {{No more links}} |
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*{{citation |
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Please be cautious adding more external links. |
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|last = India Govt Mint |
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|title = PM Modi Released Rs 125 Commemorative Coin To Honour ISKCON Founder |
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|year = 2021 |
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|url = https://www.indiagovtmint.in/pm-modi-to-release-rs-125-commemorative-coin-to-honour-iskcon-founder-today/# |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. |
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|last = Modi |
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|first = Narendra |
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|author-link = Narendra Modi |
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|title = PM releases a special commemorative coin on the occasion of 125th Birth Anniversary of Srila Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Ji |
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|year = 2021a |
|||
|url = https://www.narendramodi.in/prime-minister-narendra-modi-releases-commemorative-coin-on-125th-birth-anniversary-of-srila-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-ji-557050 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. |
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|last = Modi |
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|first = Narendra |
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|author-link = Narendra Modi |
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|title = PM's speech at release of commemorative coin on 125th Jayanti of Swami Prabhupada Ji -With Subtitles |
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|date = 1 September 2021b |
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|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWyILkAnNJk |
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|language = Hindi |
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|access-date = 12 February 2024 |
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|quote = It is as if millions of minds are bound by one emotion and millions of bodies are connected by one common consciousness! This is the Krishna consciousness which has been spread by Prabhupada Swami ji to the entire world. (...) Prabhupada Swami was not only a supernatural devotee of Krishna, but he was also a great devotee of Bharat. (...) Srila Prabhupada Swami always used to say that he is traveling in the countries because he wants to give India's most priceless treasure to the world. (...) Swami ji's revered Guruji [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]] ji saw that potential in him and instructed him to take the thought and philosophy of India to the world. Srila Prabhupada ji made this command of his Guru his mission, and the result of his efforts is visible in every corner of the world today. (...) When we visit any country and when people greet us with 'Hare Krishna', we feel so much warmth and pride. (...) Srila Prabhupada and ISKCON took up this great responsibility of propounding Bhakti Yoga to the world. He worked to connect Bhakti Vedanta with the consciousness of the world. This was no ordinary task. He started a global mission like ISKCON at the age of about 70, when people become inactive. This is a huge inspiration for our society and for every person. (...) Prabhupada Swami remained active for his resolutions from his childhood till his whole life. When Prabhupada ji went to America by sea, he was almost empty-pocket; he had only Gita and Shrimad Bhagwat! During the journey, he suffered heart attacks twice. When he reached New York, he did not have any arrangements for food and no place to stay. But what the world saw in the next 11 years, in the words of revered Atal ji, it was nothing less than a miracle. |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
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See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. |
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==== Videos ==== |
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If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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the article's talk page. |
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*{{cite web |
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|last = IMDb |
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* {{URL|https://vedabase.io/en/|Bhaktivedanta Vedabase}} – Official online multilingual library of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada |
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|title = Following Srila Prabhupada (TV Series 1997– ) |
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* {{Curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Gurus_and_Saints/Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada/}} |
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|editor = Gaurav Seth |
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* {{IMDb name|nm4152034}} |
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|publisher = [[IMDb]] |
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* {{BNF|118918976}} – Bhaktivedanta Swami, A. C. (1896–1977) |
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|year = 1996 |
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* {{WorldCat|id=lccn-n79133133}} |
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|url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0192466/ |
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* {{Internet Archive author |sname=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}} |
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|access-date = 27 February 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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{{Vaishnava philosophy}} |
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|last = Gabbard |
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{{Navboxes|title=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Navigational boxes |
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|first = Tulsi |
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|author-link = Tulsi Gabbard |
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|title = Tulsi Gabbard Message for Srila Prabhupada's Journey to USA_ISKCON 50th Anniversary |
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{{Caitanya sampradaya}} |
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|year = 2015 |
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{{Modern Gaudiya Vaishnavas}} |
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{{Hindu reform movements}} |
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*{{citation |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami}} |
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|last = Morarjee |
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|first = Sumati |
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|author-link = Sumati Morarjee |
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|title = Hare Krishna! The Mantra, The Movement And The Swami Who Started It All |
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|year = 2017 |
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|time = 34:45 |
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|url = https://archive.org/details/hare-krishna-the-mantra-the-movement-and-the-swami-who-started-it-all |
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|access-date = 12 February 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Syamasundar Das |
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|title = Hare Krishna! The Mantra, The Movement And The Swami Who Started It All |
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|year = 2017 |
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|time = 1:04:45 |
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|url = https://archive.org/details/hare-krishna-the-mantra-the-movement-and-the-swami-who-started-it-all |
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|access-date = 12 February 2024 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Tripati |
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|first = Keshari Nath |
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|author-link = Keshari Nath Tripathi |
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|title = Unveiling of Brass Srila Prabhupada Statue Jaladuta Journey to USA |
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|year = 2015 |
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|time = 4:35 |
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|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=40R3m4cF2Gk |
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|access-date = 12 February 2024 |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
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=== ISKCON-related === |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |
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|title = Light of the Bhagavata |
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|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
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|place = Los Angeles, CA |
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|year = 1997 |
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|isbn = 9789171492678 |
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}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|last = BBT |
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|title = Languages |
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|website = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
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|url = https://www.bbt.org/languages |
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|access-date = 23 October 2023 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Bhaktivedanta Hospital |
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|title = History of Hospital |
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|website = Bhaktivedanta Hospital & Research Institute |
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|url = https://www.bhaktivedantahospital.com/about-us/about-hospital |
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|access-date = 21 October 2023 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Bhaktivedanta Research |
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|title = Home |
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|website = BRC Global |
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|date = 1 March 2023 |
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|url = https://brcglobal.org/ |
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|access-date = 21 October 2023 |
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}} |
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*{{cite AV |
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|last = Bhuta Bhavana Dasa |
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|title = Prabhupada Memories |
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|volume = 47 |
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|editor = Siddhanta Dasa |
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|year = 2018 |
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|time = 18:18 |
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|url = https://youtube.com/uVFMcj2KFDw?t=1098 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Child Protection Office |
|||
|title = ISKCON Child Protection Guidelines |
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|url = https://www.iskconchildprotection.org/_files/ugd/8a61c5_3cba6c1074e7427d893be8af35c40a79.pdf |
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|year = 2018 |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
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|last = Das |
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|first = Daiva Rama |
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|date = 29 February 2020 |
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|title = Major Street in Ahmedabad Renamed In Honor of Srila Prabhupada |
|||
|work = ISKCON News |
|||
|place = Gujarat, India |
|||
|url = https://iskconnews.org/major-street-in-ahmedabad-renamed-in-honor-of-srila-prabhupada,7214/ |
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}} |
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*{{citation |
|||
|last = Garga Samhita |
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|title = Verse 1.2.28 [Garga Samhita] |
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|website = Wisdom Library; The portal for Hinduism, Sanskrit, Buddhism, Jainism, Mesopotamia etc... |
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|date = 16 July 2022 |
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|url = https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/garga-samhita-english/d/doc1122607.html |
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|access-date = 22 October 2023 |
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}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|last = GBC |
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|title = List of Initiating Gurus in ISKCON |
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|year = 2024 |
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|url = https://gbc.iskcon.org/list-of-initiating-gurus-in-iskcon/ |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = Haribol |
|||
|first = Thomas |
|||
|title = NE-BBT Releases 2022 Stats Showing Growth in Distribution, Printing, eBooks, and More |
|||
|website = ISKCON News |
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|date = 16 August 2023 |
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|url = https://iskconnews.org/ne-bbt-releases-2022-stats-showing-growth-in-distribution-printing-ebooks-and-more/ |access-date = 23 October 2023 |
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}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|last = ISKCON |
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|title = India |
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|website = ISKCON Centers - World wide directory of official ISKCON Centres & Branches |
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|date = 9 July 2011 |
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|url = https://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/india/ |
|||
|access-date = 23 October 2023 |
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}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Prabhupada |
|||
|first = A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |
|||
|title = The Jaladuta Diary |
|||
|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
|||
|year = 1965 |
|||
|url = http://www.prabhupada.de/Prabhupada_Jaladuta-Diary.pdf |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = PrabhupadaDotCom |
|||
|title = About Srila Prabhupada |
|||
|publisher = Prabhupada.com |
|||
|url = https://www.prabhupada.com/About/AAbout.html |
|||
|access-date = 27 February 2024 |
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}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = PrabhupadaMemories |
|||
|title = Prabhupada Memories |
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|url = https://www.prabhupadamemories.com/ |
|||
|access-date = 27 February 2024 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Reviews |
|||
|title = Scholarly Appreciations of Srila Prabhupada's Books |
|||
|url = https://www.srilaprabhupada.co.in/scholarly-appreciations-of-srila-prabhupadas-books |
|||
|access-date = 23 August 2013 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Smullen |
|||
|first = Madhava |
|||
|title = Srila Prabhupada and Jaladuta Sculpture Installed Outside ISKCON Boston |
|||
|work = ISKCON News |
|||
|date = 20 August 2018 |
|||
|url = https://iskconnews.org/srila-prabhupada-and-jaladuta-sculpture-installed-outside-iskcon-boston/ |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = Vanipedia |
|||
|title = Timeline of Srila Prabhupada's Life |
|||
|url = https://vanipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Srila_Prabhupada%27s_Life |
|||
|year = 2024 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = Vedabase |
|||
|title = Room Conversation — Varṇāśrama System Must Be Introduced |
|||
|website = Online Vedabase |
|||
|date = 14 February 1977 |
|||
|url = https://vedabase.io/en/library/transcripts/770214r2may/ |
|||
|access-date = 22 October 2023 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = Vedabase |
|||
|title = Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.1.10 |
|||
|website = Online Vedabase |
|||
|date = 21 May 1973 |
|||
|url = https://vedabase.io/en/library/transcripts/730521sbdal/ |
|||
|access-date = 22 October 2023 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = Vedabase |
|||
|title = Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 4.25.10 |
|||
|website = Online Vedabase |
|||
|date = 28 July 2021 |
|||
|url = https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/4/25/10/ |
|||
|access-date = 22 October 2023 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
=== Works by Prabhupada's followers === |
|||
{{refbegin|30em}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Greene |
|||
|first = Joshua |
|||
|title = Here Comes the Sun. The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison |
|||
|place = Los Angeles, CA |
|||
|publisher = [[Turner Publishing Company|Turner Publishing]] |
|||
|year = 2006 |
|||
|url = https://archive.org/details/herecomessunspir0000gree |
|||
|isbn = 9780471690214 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Greene |
|||
|first = Joshua |
|||
|title = Swami in a Strange Land |
|||
|place = San Rafael |
|||
|publisher = Mandala Publishing |
|||
|year = 2016 |
|||
|url = https://archive.org/details/QqIx_swami-in-a-strange-land-the-biography-of-ac-bhaktivedanta-swami-prabhupada-joshua-m.-greene |
|||
|isbn = 9781608876440 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Griesser |
|||
|first = John |
|||
|author2-last = Griesser |
|||
|author2-first = Jean |
|||
|author3-last = Ross |
|||
|author3-first = Lauren |
|||
|title = Hare Krishna: The Mantra, the Movement and the Swami Who Started It All |
|||
|year = 15 December 2017 |
|||
|url = https://www.spiritualityandpractice.com/films/reviews/view/28458/hare-krishna-the-mantra-the-movement-and-the-swami-who-started-it-all |
|||
|place = India |
|||
|publisher=Spirituality & Practice |
|||
|access-date = 29 August 2023 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Hayagriva Dasa |
|||
|title = The Spiritual Master: Emissary of the Supreme Person |
|||
|magazine = Back to Godhead |
|||
|issue = 38 |
|||
|year = 1970 |
|||
|url = http://back2godhead.com/newpdf-17-36/067_1970_01-38.pdf |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Hayagriva Dasa |
|||
|title = The Hare Krishna Explosion: The Birth of Krishna Consciousness in America, 1966-1969 |
|||
|place = Moundsville, WV |
|||
|publisher = Palace Press |
|||
|year = 1985 |
|||
|url = https://theharekrishnamovement.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/the-hare-krishna-explosion.pdf |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Jayadvaita Swami |
|||
|author-link = Jayadvaita Swami |
|||
|title = Vanity Karma: Ecclesiastes, the Bhagavad-gita, and the meaning of life |
|||
|place = Los Angeles, CA |
|||
|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
|||
|year = 2015 |
|||
|isbn = 9780892134496 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Kaunteya Das |
|||
|year = 2022 |
|||
|title = Tough Questions, Difficult Answers on Srila Prabhupada’s Contentious Remarks |
|||
|publisher = Eye of the Storm Press |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Kurma Dasa |
|||
|title = The Great Transcendental Adventure: Pastimes of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in Australia and New Zealand |
|||
|place = Botany, Australia |
|||
|publisher = Chakra Press |
|||
|year = 1999 |
|||
|isbn = 9780947259228 |
|||
|url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Great_Transcendental_Adventure/z0PpAAAACAAJ |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Mukunda Goswami |
|||
|author-link = Mukunda Goswami |
|||
|title = Miracle on Second Avenue: Hare Krishna Arrives in the West |
|||
|publisher = Torchlight Publishing |
|||
|place = Badger, CA |
|||
|year = 2011 |
|||
|isbn = 978-0981727349 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Ravindra Svarupa Dasa |
|||
|author-link = Ravindra Svarupa Dasa |
|||
|title = Disease |
|||
|journal = Back to Godhead magazine |
|||
|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
|||
|volume = 27 |
|||
|number = 1 |
|||
|year = 1993 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Rosen |
|||
|first = Steven J. |
|||
|title = Black Lotus: The Spiritual Journey of an Urban Mystic |
|||
|publisher = Hari-Nama Press |
|||
|year = 2007b |
|||
|isbn = 979-8640550719 |
|||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=evSbzQEACAAJ |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami |
|||
|author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami |
|||
|title = Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta |
|||
|publisher = Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
|||
|place = Los Angeles |
|||
|year = 2002 |
|||
|isbn = 9780892133550 |
|||
|url = https://archive.org/details/SatswarupaDasaGoswamiPrabhupadaLilamrtaCompl |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Satyaraja Dasa |
|||
|title = A Spiritual Happening on the Lower East Side |
|||
|journal = Back to Godhead |
|||
|volume = 45 |
|||
|issue = 2 |
|||
|year = 2011 |
|||
|url = https://btg.krishna.com/a-spiritual-happening-on-the-lower-east-side/ |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|last = TheTVDB |
|||
|title = Following Srila Prabhupada |
|||
|publisher = The TVDB |
|||
|url = https://thetvdb.com/series/following-srila-prabhupada |
|||
|access-date = 27 February 2024 |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{citation |
|||
|last = Wheeler |
|||
|first = Howard |
|||
|title = Matchless Gifts |
|||
|journal = [[Back to Godhead]] |
|||
|volume = 12 |
|||
|number = 3-4 |
|||
|page = 12 |
|||
|year = 1977 |
|||
|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |
|||
}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
=== External links === |
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{{Commons|Prabhupada}} |
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{{Commons|Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}} |
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*[https://vanipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Vanipedia, an online encyclopedia of Prabhupada's legacy] |
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*[https://vedabase.io/ Vedabase, a multi-language searchable library of Prabhupada's works] |
|||
*[http://prabhupada.com/ The Bhaktivedanta Archives] |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Swami}} |
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Revision as of 18:21, 24 March 2024
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | |
---|---|
A close-up portrait of an elderly Indian man in crimson sweater and with a shaved head and a flower garland, clapping hands. | |
Title | Founder-Acharya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness |
Personal | |
Born | Abhay Charan De 1 September 1896 |
Died | 14 November 1977 | (aged 81)
Religion | Gaudiya Vaishnavism (Hinduism) |
Lineage | from Chaitanya Mahaprabhu |
Notable work(s) |
|
Known for | the Hare Krishna movement |
Signature | |
Senior posting | |
Guru | Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur |
"Godhead is light. Nescience is darkness. Where there is Godhead there is no nescience".
Part of a series on |
Vaishnavism |
---|
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (IAST: Abhaya Caraṇāravinda Bhakti-vedānta Svāmī Prabhupāda (1896–1977) was the twentieth-century spiritual, philosophical, and religious teacher from India who spread the Hare Krishna mantra and the teachings of “Krishna consciousness” to the world. Born as Abhay Charan De and later legally named Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami, he is often referred to simply as “Bhaktivedanta Swami”, "Srila Prabhupada", or simply “Prabhupada”.[1]
To carry out an order received in his youth from his spiritual teacher to spread “Krishna consciousness” in English, in his old age, at 69, he journeyed in 1965 from Kolkata to New York City on a cargo ship, taking with him little more than a few trunks of books. He knew no one in America, but he chanted Hare Krishna in a park in New York City, gave classes, and in 1966, with the help of some early students, established the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), which now has centers throughout the world.
He taught a path in which one aims at realizing oneself to be an eternal spiritual being, distinct from one’s temporary material body, and seeks to revive one’s dormant relationship with the supreme living being, known by the Sanskrit name Krishna. One does this through various practices, especially through hearing about Krishna from standard texts, chanting mantras consisting of names of Krishna, and adopting a life of devotional service to Krishna. As part of these practices, Prabhupada required that his initiated students strictly refrain from gambling, eating meat, fish, and eggs, using intoxicants (even coffee, tea, or cigarettes), and engaging in extramarital sex. In contrast to earlier Indian teachers who had promoted in the West the idea that the ultimate truth is essentially impersonal, he taught that the Absolute is ultimately personal.
His duty as a guru, or teacher, he held, was to convey intact the message of Krishna as found in core spiritual texts such as the Bhagavad Gita. To this end, he wrote and published a translation and commentary he called Bhagavad-gita As It Is. He also wrote and published translations and commentaries for texts celebrated in India but hardly known elsewhere, such as the Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana) and the Chaitanya Charitamrita, thereby making those texts accessible in English for the first time. In all, he wrote more than eighty books.
During his spreading of Krishna consciousness, his Society, ISKCON, came to be labeled a destructive cult in America and Europe. Although court cases rejected claims of cultic brainwashing and recognized ISKCON as representing a bona fide spiritual tradition, in some places the “cult” label and image have persisted. Prabhupada's work, views, and mission have been both criticized and praised, but his teachings and the Society he established continue to be influential.
Early life (1896–1922)
Abhay Charan De was born in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India, on September 1, 1896, the day after Janmashtami (the birth anniversary of Krishna).[2] His parents, Gour Mohan De and Rajani De, named him Abhay Charan, meaning “one who is fearless, having taken shelter of Lord Krishna’s lotus feet”.[1] Following Indian tradition, Abhay’s father invited to the house an astrologer, who calculated the child’s horoscope. The astrologer predicted that at the age of seventy Abhay would cross the ocean,[3] become a famous religious teacher, and open 108 temples around the world.[4]
Abhay was raised in a religious family belonging to the suvarna-vanik mercantile community. His parents were Gaudiya Vaishnavas, or followers of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who taught that Krishna is the Supreme Personality and that pure love for Krishna is the highest attainment.[5][6]
Gour Mohan was a middle-income merchant and had his own fabric and clothing store[7]. He was related to the rich and aristocratic Mullik mercantile family,[3] who had been trading in gold and salt for centuries.[7]
Opposite the De house was a temple of Radha-Krishna that for a century and a half had been supported by the Mullik family.[7] Every day, young Abhay, accompanied by his parents or servants, attended temple services.[7]
At the age of six, Abhay organized a likeness of the “chariot festival”, or Ratha-yatra, the huge Vaishnava festival held annually in the city of Puri in Odisha.[8] For this purpose, Abhay persuaded his father to obtain for him a scaled-down copy of the massive chariot on which the form of Jagannatha (Krishna as “Lord of the universe”) rides in procession in Puri.[8] Decades later, after going to America, Abhay would bring Ratha-yatra festivals to the West.[9]
Education (1916–1920)
Though Abhay’s mother wanted Abhay to go to London to study law,[10] his father rejected the idea, fearing Abhay would be negatively influenced by Western society and acquire bad habits.[2] In 1916 Abhay began his studies at Scottish Church College, a prestigious school in Calcutta founded by Alexander Duff, a Christian missionary.[11][a]
Marriage and family
In 1918, while in college, Abhay, as arranged by his father, married Radharani Datta, also from an aristocratic family.[2][8][12] They had five children over the course of their marriage.[6] After graduation from college, Abhay began a career in pharmaceuticals[13] and later opened his own pharmaceutical company in Allahabad.[14]
Gandhi’s movement
Abhay grew up while India was under British rule, and like many other youth his age he was attracted to Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement. In 1920 Abhay graduated from college with a specialization in English, philosophy, and economics.[15] He successfully passed the final exams, but as a sign of opposition to British rule he refused to take part in the graduation ceremony and receive a diploma.[12][2]
Midlife (1922–1965)
In 1922, while still in college, Abhay was persuaded by a friend, Narendranath Mullik,[7] to meet with Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati (1874-1937), a Vaishnava scholar and teacher, the founder of the Gaudiya Math, a spiritual institution for spreading the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[2] (the word “math” denotes a monastic or missionary center).[16] Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati was continuing the work of his father, Bhaktivinoda Thakur (1838-1914). Bhaktivinoda regarded Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s teachings as the highest form of theism, intended not for any one religion or nation but for all humanity.[13]
When the meeting took place, Bhaktisiddhanta said to Abhay, “You are an educated young man. Why don’t you take the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and spread it in English?”[2][17][18] But Abhay, according to his own later account, argued that India first needed to become independent before anyone would take Chaitanya’s message seriously — an argument Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati defeated.[19] Convinced, Abhay accepted the instruction to spread the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in English, and it was in pursuance of this order from Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati that he later traveled to New York.[20] Many years later he recalled: “I immediately accepted him as spiritual master. Not formally, but in my heart”.[21]
The Gaudiya Math and initiation (1933)
After meeting Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur in 1922, Abhay had little contact with the Gaudiya Math until 1928, when sannyasis (renounced, itinerant preachers) from the Math came to open a center in Allahabad, where Abhay and his family were living.[22] Abhay became a regular visitor, contributed funds, and brought important people to the lectures of the Math’s sannyasis. In 1932 he visited Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in the holy town of Vrindavan, and in 1933, when Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati came to Allahabad to lay the cornerstone for a new temple, Abhay received diksha (spiritual initiation) from him and was given the name Abhay Charanaravinda.[1][22]
Over the next three years, whenever he was able to visit Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in Calcutta[23] or Vrindavan,[24] Abhay Charanaravinda would carefully hear from his spiritual master.[25] In 1935 Abhay Charanaravinda moved for business to Bombay[26] and then in 1937 back to Calcutta.[27] In both places he assisted other members of the Gaudiya Math by donating money, leading kirtans, lecturing, writing, and bringing others to the Math. At the end of 1936 he visited Vrindavan, where he again met Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur, who told him, “If you ever get money, print books”[8] — an instruction that would inform his life’s work.
Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur, two weeks before his death on January 1, 1937, wrote a letter to Abhay Charanaravinda urging him to teach Gaudiya Vaishnavism in English. [28][29][30][31]. After Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur passed away, the unified mission of the Gaudiya Math split,[32] and a battle for power broke out between his senior disciples.[33] Although Abhay Charanaravinda continued to serve with other disciples of his spiritual master and wrote articles for their publications, he kept clear of the political struggles.[33][34]
“Bhaktivedanta” title (1939)
In 1939, elders in the Gaudiya community honored Abhay Charanaravinda with the title “Bhaktivedanta”. In the title, bhakti means “devotion”, and vedanta means “the culmination of Vedic knowledge”.[35] Thus the honorary title acknowledged his scholarship and devotion.[1]
Back to Godhead magazine (1944)
In an effort to fulfill the order of his guru, in 1944 A. C. Bhaktivedanta began publishing Back to Godhead, an English fortnightly magazine presenting the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.[36][37][30] He singlehandedly wrote, edited, financed, published, and distributed the magazine,[38][39] today still published and distributed by his followers.[40][41]
Accepting vanaprastha
In 1950 A. C. Bhaktivedanta accepted the vanaprastha ashram (the traditional retired order of life), and went to live in the Indian holy town of Vrindavan, regarded as the site of Krishna’s Lila (divine pastimes),[22] although continuing to commute to Delhi on occasion.[42] In Mathura, adjoining Vrindavan, he wrote for and edited the Gauḍīya Patrikā magazine published by his godbrother[b] Bhakti Prajnana Kesava Goswami.[43]
Forming “The League of Devotees” (1952)
In 1952, A. C. Bhaktivedanta attempted to set up organized spiritual activities in the central Indian city of Jhansi, where he started “The League of Devotees”[44][45] — only to see the organization collapse two years later.[37] [46]
Taking sannyasa (1959)
On September 17, 1959,[42] prompted by a dream of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati calling on him to accept sannyasa (renounced order of life), A. C. Bhaktivedanta formally entered sannyasa asrama from Bhakti Prajnan Keshava at his Keshavaji Gaudiya Math in Mathura and was given the name Bhaktivedanta Swami. Wishing to preserve the initiatory name given him by Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, as a sign of humility and connection to his spiritual master he kept the initials “A. C”. before his sannyasa name. Now he was A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami.[47]
Staying at the Radha Damodar temple (1962–1965)
From 1962 to 1965 Bhaktivedanta Swami stayed in Vrindavan at the historic Radha-Damodar temple. There he began the task of translating from Sanskrit into English and commenting on the eighteen-thousand-verse Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana), [48] the foundational text of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.[49] With great effort and struggle, he finally succeeded to translate, produce, raise funds for, and print the first of its twelve cantos, in three volumes.[50]
Journey to the United States (1965)
It was at this time also, after accepting sannyasa, that Bhaktivedanta Swami began planning to travel to America to fulfill his spiritual master’s desire to spread Chaitanya’s teachings in the West.[51][52]
To leave India, Bhaktivedanta Swami had many hurdles to overcome: He needed a sponsor in America, official approvals in India, and of course a ticket for his travel. After significant difficulties he managed to secure the needed sponsorship and approvals,[48] and at last he approached one of his well-wishers, Sumati Morarjee, the head of the Scindia Steam Navigation Company, to ask for free passage to America on one of her cargo ships.[53] Because of his age, she at first tried to dissuade him:[42] “I said to him, ‘Swamiji, don’t go there. You are too old to go, and it will be too cold for you.’ I said, ‘Are you crazy? Old man, you are going to die! Who will look after you? What will you do there?’”[54]
But finally she relented and granted him a ticket on a freighter, the Jaladuta. Bhaktivedanta Swami began the 35-day journey to America on August 13, 1965, at the age of 69.[56][57]
He took with him little more than a suitcase, an umbrella, some dry cereal, forty Indian rupees (about seven US dollars), and two hundred three-volume sets of his translation of the first canto of Srimad-Bhagavatam.[58][59][60][61]
After surviving two heart attacks during his maritime journey,[62] Bhaktivedanta Swami finally arrived at the Boston Harbor on September 17, 1965, and then continued on to New York City.[63]
Later years (1965-1977)
Beginnings in New York City
Bhaktivedanta Swami had no support or acquaintances in the United States except the Agarwals, an Indian-American family, who, although strangers to him, had agreed to sponsor his visa.[52] Upon reaching New York, he took a bus to the town of Butler, Pennsylvania, where the Agarwals lived. In Butler he delivered lectures to different groups at venues like the local YMCA.[64][65]
After a month in Butler, he returned by bus to New York City.[52] He stayed at various places — sometimes in a windowless room,[66] sometimes a Bowery loft[67] — until with the help of early followers he found a place to stay in the Lower East Side, where he converted a storefront curiosity shop with the serendipitous name “Matchless Gifts” into a small temple[68][69] at 26 Second Avenue.[70][71] [72][73][74][68][75] There he offered classes on the Bhagavad-gita and other Vaishnava texts and held kirtan (group chanting) of the Hare Krishna mantra:
Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare
Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.[76]
After he and his followers held Hare Krishna kirtan one Sunday under a tree in nearby Tompkins Square Park, The New York Times reported the event: “Swami’s Flock Chants in Park to Find Ecstasy; 50 Followers Clap and Sway to Hypnotic Music at East Side Ceremony”.[77] He slowly gained a following, mainly from young people of the 60s counterculture.[68]
In contrast to the 60s countercultural lifestyle, he required of that in order to receive spiritual initiation his followers had to vow to follow four “regulative principles”: no illicit sex (that is, sex outside of marriage), no eating of meat, fish, or eggs, no intoxicants (including drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, and even coffee and tea), and no gambling.[78][79] New initiates also vowed to daily chant sixteen meditative “rounds” of the Hare Krishna 'mantra' (that is, to complete sixteen circuits of chanting the mantra on a 108-bead strand). During the first year in New York, he initiated nineteen people.[68]
In July 1966 he incorporated the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).[73][68][80]
In December of 1966 he made a recording of Krishna kirtan (along with a brief explanatory talk) that took the form of an album entitled Krishna Consciousness,[81] released under the “Happening” record label. The record helped the early spread of what he called “the Hare Krishna movement”. [82][83]
With his small band of followers in a little storefront, he was already sharing a vision of spreading “Krishna consciousness” around the world. He asked them to help — for example, by typing his manuscripts for the second canto of the Srimad-Bhagavatam.[84] After he completed his Bhagavad-gita As It Is (by mid January of 1967),[85] he asked a new disciple to find a publisher for it.[86]
Bhaktivedanta Swami personally taught his first followers to spread Krishna’s message, prepare food to offer to Krishna, collect donations, and chant the Hare Krishna maha-mantra (“great mantra”) on the streets.[87]
San Francisco
]In 1967 Bhaktivedanta Swami established a second center, in San Francisco.[88] The opening of the temple in the heart of the booming hippie community of Haight-Ashbury attracted many new adherents and was a turning point in his movement’s history, marking the beginning of rapid growth.[68][89] To gain attention and raise funds, his disciples organized a two-hour concert with kirtan led by Bhaktivedanta Swami and rock performances by the Grateful Dead and other famous rock groups of the day.[90] This “Mantra Rock Dance”, held at the popular Avalon Ballroom, attracted some three thousand people[90] and brought attention to the local Hare Krishna temple. One commentator dubbed it the “ultimate high of that era”.[91]
Later that year, Bhaktivedanta Swami’s followers organized San Francisco’s first Ratha Yatra, the festival he had celebrated as a child in imitation of the massive parade held annually in the Indian city of Puri. For this first San Francisco version, a flatbed truck with four pillars holding a canopy took the place of Puri’s three huge ornate wooden vehicles.[92] He would later establish this annual festival in major cities around the world,[93] with big vehicles —“chariots” — and thousands of people taking part.
At first Bhaktivedanta Swami’s followers referred to him as “the Swami”[94] or “Swamiji”.[68] From mid-1968 onwards they called him “Prabhupada”, a respectful epithet that “enjoys currency with devotees and an increasing number of scholars”.[1]
Great Britain and Europe
In 1968, Prabhupada asked three married couples among his disciples to open a temple in London, England. Following his instructions, the disciples, dressed in their robes and saris, began singing Hare Krishna regularly on London streets and at once attracted attention. Soon newspapers carried headlines like “Krishna Chant Startles London” and “Happiness is Hare Krishna”.[95]
A further breakthrough came in December 1969 when the disciples managed to meet with members of the rock band the Beatles, who were at the peak of their global fame.[95] Even before then, George Harrison and John Lennon had gotten a copy of the maha-mantra recording released by Prabhupada and his students in New York and had begun singing Hare Krishna.[83][96]
In August 1969, Harrison produced a single of the Hare Krishna mantra, sung by the London disciples, and released it on Apple Records.[95][96] For the recording, the disciples called themselves “The Radha Krishna Temple”.[97] Harrison told a press conference convened by Apple that the Hare Krishna mantra was not a pop song but an ancient mantra that awakened spiritual bliss in the hearts of people listening to and repeating it.[98] Seventy thousand copies of the record sold on the first day.[95] It rose to number 11 on the British charts,[96] and Prabhupada’s students performed live four times on the BBC’s popular TV show Top of the Pops.[99] The record was also a success in Germany, Holland, France, Sweden, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia (as well as South Africa and Japan), and so the group was invited to perform in a number of European countries.[100]
The next year, 1970, Harrison produced with Prabhupada’s disciples another hit single, “Govinda”, and in May 1971 the album The Radha Krishna Temple.[96] In 1970, Harrison sponsored the publishing of the first volume of Prabhupada’s book Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead,[95][101] which relates the activities of Krishna's life as told in the tenth canto of the Srimad-Bhagavatam. In 1973 Harrison donated a seventeen-acre estate known as Piggots Manor,[102] fifteen miles northwest of London. The Hare Krishna devotees converted this into a rural temple-ashram and renamed it Bhaktivedanta Manor[103] in Prabhupada’s honor.
Once Prabhupada’s disciples had made a start in England, Prabhupada over the years visited England many times and from there traveled to Germany, France, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Netherlands,[104] leading kirtans, installing forms of Krishna in ISKCON temples, meeting religious and intellectual leaders and others keen to meet him, and guiding and encouraging his disciples.[c]
Africa
In 1970 Prabhupada made the first of several visits to Kenya.[104] Although the disciples he had sent there had settled into doing spiritual programs for the local Indian people, Prabhupada insisted on doing programs meant for Africans. On one notable occasion in Nairobi, when he was scheduled to do a program at an Indian Radha-Krishna temple in a mainly African area downtown, he ordered the doors opened to invite the local residents, so that the hall soon flooded with African people.[105] Then he held kirtan and gave a talk. Prabhupada told his local leaders that this is what they should do: spread Krishna consciousness among the local African people.[106] Prabhupada also later visited Mauritius and South Africa[104] and sent his disciples to Nigeria and Zambia.[107]
The Soviet Union
Prabhupada’s visit to Moscow from June 20 to June 25, 1971 marked the beginning of Krishna consciousness in the Soviet Union.[108] During his five days in Moscow, Prabhupada managed to meet only two Soviet citizens: Grigory Kotovsky, a professor of Indian and South Asian studies, and Anatoly Pinyaev, a twenty-three-year-old Muscovite.[d] Pinyaev, who went on to become the first Soviet Hare Krishna devotee, met Prabhupada through the son of an Indian diplomat stationed in Moscow.[109] Prabhupada’s assistant gave Pinyaev a copy of Prabhupada’s Bhagavad-gita, which Pinyaev was able to translate into Russian, copy, and then distribute underground in the Soviet Union during Communist times.[110] Pinyaev showed a great interest in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, accepted initiation from Prabhupada, and did much to ignite interest in Krishna consciousness in the Soviet Union.[108] Pinyaev was later imprisoned in Smolensk Special Psychiatric Hospital and forcibly treated with drugs for his practice of Krishna consciousness.[108][111]
India
Having achieved some success in the West, in 1970 Prabhupada directed his attention especially to India, with the hope of turning India back toward her original spiritual sensibilities.[112] He came back to India with a party of Western disciples[51] — ten American sannyasis and twenty other devotees[95] — and for the next seven years focused much of his effort on establishing temples in Bombay, Vrindavan, Hyderabad, and a planned international headquarters in Mayapur, West Bengal (the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu).[51]
By that time, Prabhupada saw, India had set a course towards Europeanization[62] and sought to imitate the West. Therefore, the appearance on Indian soil of American and European Hare Krishna devotees who had rejected Western materialism and embraced Indian spiritual culture “caused nothing less than a sensation among the modernizing (i.e. Westernizing) Indians, planting seeds for an authentic religious revival there”.[113]
By the early 1970s, Prabhupada had established his movement’s American headquarters in Los Angeles and its world headquarters in Mayapur.[114]
Around the world
In Latin America, Prabhupada visited Mexico and Venezuela. In Asia he visited Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. He also spent time in Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji. In the Middle East he visited Iran.[104] Among the places he sent disciples to spread Krishna consciousness was China.[107]
Early in the movement, Prabhupada had guided his students personally, but later, as the movement rapidly expanded, he relied more on letters and his secretaries.[115] By giving his students instructions, advice, and encouragement, he ensured a “strong paternal presence” in their lives.[87] He wrote more than six thousand letters, many now collected and kept at the Bhaktivedanta Archives.[116] Besides receiving reports of accomplishments, via correspondence he also had to deal — almost daily — with setbacks, perplexities, quarrels, and failures. He tried to correct them as much as possible and kept on advancing his movement.[117]
Wherever he was, he took an hour-long early-morning walk, which became a time for disciples to ask questions and receive personal guidance.[118] On returning from his walk, he lectured daily on the Srimad-Bhagavatam,[119] often reading from the portion of the manuscript he was working on. Every afternoon he met with disciples or with dignitaries and leaders from various parts of his mission.
Traveling constantly to lecture and tend to his disciples, Prabhupada circled the world fourteen times in ten years.[120] He opened more than one hundred temples and dozens of farm communities and restaurants, as well as gurukulas (boarding schools) for ISKCON's children.[121] He initiated nearly five thousand disciples.[122]
Death (1977)
On November 14, 1977, at the age of 81, after a long illness, Prabhupada passed away in his room at the Krishna Balaram Mandir,[123] the temple he had established in Vrindavan, India.[124][125][126] His burial site is located in the courtyard of the temple beneath a samadhi (memorial shrine) built by his followers.[127]
Succession
In 1970 Prabhupada established a Governing Body Commission (GBC), then consisting of twelve leading disciples, to oversee ISKCON’s activities around the world and to serve as ISKCON’s ultimate managing authority.[126] In 1977, four months before his departure, he appointed eleven senior disciples to perform spiritual initiations on his behalf while he was ill.[128]
Despite the measures Prabhupada took to organize the management of his movement, his death in November 1977 caused a crisis of authority in ISKCON that destabilized the organization and became a turning point in its development.[125][129][130] The succession process was beset by conflicts, with disagreements persisting for decades.[131][132] Nonetheless, by 2023 nearly one hundred disciples and grand-disciples in succession from Prabhupada were serving as initiating gurus in his branch of the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineage.[133]
Philosophy and teachings
Within Eastern systems, spiritual lineages are integral to each tradition, and a teacher is mandated to maintain theological fidelity by transmitting knowledge as given in the lineage.[134] Prabhupada comes in the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya lineage, which traces back to the fifteenth-century saint and mystic Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533)[135] and the thirteenth-century theologian Madhvacharya (1238–1317), and further back, its teachings say, to the beginnings of creation.[136] This lineage (sampradaya) follows such texts as Srimad-Bhagavatam, the Bhagavad-gita, and the writings of Chaitanya’s disciples and their followers.[137] Prabhupada’s extensive commentaries on the sacred texts follow those of Bhaktisiddhanta, Bhaktivinoda, and other traditional teachers, such as Baladeva Vidyabhushana, Vishvanatha Chakravarti, Jiva Goswami, Madhvacharya, and Ramanujacharya.[138]
The Absolute Truth
In accordance with the teachings of the Srimad-Bhagavatam, Prabhupada taught that the supreme truth, or Absolute Truth, is the one unlimited, undivided spiritual entity that is the source of all. That Absolute Truth, he taught, is realized in three phases: as Brahman (all-pervading impersonal oneness), as Paramatma (the aspect of God present within the heart of every living being), and as Bhagavan, the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Though the Absolute Truth is one, he taught, that one Absolute is progressively realized in these three features according to one’s level of spiritual advancement. In the initial stage the Absolute is realized as Brahman, in a more advanced stage as Paramatma, and at the most advanced stage as Bhagavan.[139][140][141][142]
Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead
In the Srimad-Bhagavatam, and so in Prabhupada’s teachings, Krishna is seen as the original and supreme manifestation of Bhagavan[136] – in Sanskrit, svayam-bhagavan, or the Supreme Personality of Godhead himself.[143] No one is equal to or greater than Krishna.[144] Brahman and Paramatma are partial realizations of Krishna.[144] The various Vishnu forms, such as Ramachandra and Narasimha, are “nondifferent” from Krishna; they are the same Personality of Godhead, appearing in different roles. But the form of Krishna is the original and the most complete form. In the Hindu pantheon, he taught, the gods other than the Vishnu forms are demigods — that is, assistants of the Supreme Personality of Godhead.[139]
The energies of the Absolute
If the Absolute Truth is one, this raises the question of how there can be diversity. If, as the Upanishads say, there is only the Absolute Truth and nothing else, we need some way to account for the existence of living beings, with all their differences, and the world, with all its many colors, forms, sounds, aromas, and so on. Prabhupada responds by referencing a statement from the Upanishads that the Absolute Truth has varied energies.[145][146] As a fire located in one place gives off heat and light throughout a room, the Absolute Truth fills the world with every sort of variety.[147]
Oneness and difference
Prabhupada taught Chaitanya’s doctrine of achintya bheda-abheda-tattva, in which everything is seen as simultaneously, inconceivably one with the Absolute — that is, with Krishna — and yet different.[145][148][149] By way of analogy, Prabhupada gives the example that heat is in one sense identical with the fire from which it emerges and yet the two are different — when sitting in a fire’s warmth, we are not burning in the fire itself.[147][150] This “oneness and difference” accounts for the oneness of an Absolute Truth that includes limitless varieties.[145][148][149]
The inferior and superior energies
Among Krishna’s energies, Prabhupada taught, the ingredients of this world collectively belong to Krishna’s “inferior energy”[151] — inferior in that, being inert matter, it lacks consciousness.[152][153] But superior to inert matter are the conscious living beings (jivas) that belong to Krishna’s “superior energy”.[154][155]
The predicament of the living being
Because the living beings belong to Krishna’s “superior energy”, Prabhupada taught, they share in Krishna’s divine qualities, including knowledge, bliss, and eternality (sat, cit, and ananda).[152][155] But because of contact with the “inferior energy” since time immemorial,[156] the divine nature of the living beings has been covered, and subjecting the living beings in this world to ignorance, suffering, and repeated birth and death.[157] In each life the living beings struggle against birth and death, disease and old age.[158] While trying to control and enjoy the resources of nature, the living beings increasingly suffer from entanglement in nature’s complexities.[159]
As spiritual beings, belonging to the “superior energy”, the living beings are different from their material bodies: the body may be male or female, young or old, white or black, American or Indian, but the living being within the body is beyond what he called these “material designations”.[160] Prabhupada phrased this understanding in a maxim he often used: “I am not this body”.[161][162]
When we falsely identify with these bodies, he taught, we are under the influence of maya, or illusion. Only when this illusion is dispelled can the soul become liberated from material existence.[158]
Bhakti
Prabhupada taught that the living beings can be freed from illusion, and from their entire material predicament, by recognizing that they are tiny but eternal parts of Krishna and that their natural engagement lies in serving Krishna, just as a hand serves the body. Dormant within every living being, Prabhupada taught, is an eternal loving relationship with that Absolute, or Krishna, and when that loving relationship is revived, the living being resumes its natural eternal and joyful life.[163] This eternal service in devotion to Krishna, rendered by one freed from all material designation, is called bhakti.[144]
One can begin practicing bhakti, Prabhupada taught, even while in the earliest stages of spiritual life. In this way, bhakti is both the final end to be achieved and the means by which to achieve it. As a spiritual practice, bhakti is a powerful, transformative process that purifies the soul and enables it to see God directly.[158]
Impersonalism
Prabhupada crusaded against what he called “impersonalism” — that is, the idea that ultimately the Supreme has no form, qualities, activities, or personal attributes. In this way he stood opposed to the teachings of Shankara (A.D. 788–820), who held that everything except Brahman is illusory, including the soul, the world, and God.[164] Before Prabhupada, Shankara’s system of thought, known as Advaita Vedanta, had generally provided the framework for Western understandings of Hinduism,[165] and the “steady procession of Hindu swamis” who came to America generally aligned themselves with Shankara’s monistic views and the idea of “the ultimate absorption of the self into an impersonal Reality or Brahman”.[166]
But prominent Vaishnava philosophers from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries like Madhva and Ramanuja had opposed Shankara’s views with personalistic understandings of Vedanta. Those teachers presented strong philosophical arguments criticizing Shankara’s “illusionism” (mayavada), his view that personal individuality, indeed all individuality, is illusory.[164][167] Philosophers in the Gaudiya line such as, in the sixteenth century, Jiva Goswami had continued to argue formidably against impersonalism, which they regarded as the essential metaphysical misconception”.[168] So Prabhupada strongly opposed impersonalistic views wherever he encountered them and asserted the eternal personal existence of the Absolute and of all living beings.[164] Where Buddhism shares ground with Shankara’s views by teaching that ultimately personality disintegrates, leaving nothing but a void nirvana,[169] Buddhism too came in for Prabhupada’s strong personalistic critique.[169][170]
Societal organization
Prabhupada taught that society should ideally be organized in such a way that people have specific duties according to their occupation (varna) and stage of life (ashrama).[171] The four varnas are intellectual work; administrative and military work; agriculture and business; and ordinary labor and assistance. The four ashramas are student life, married life, retired life, and renounced life. In accordance with the Bhagavad-gita and in opposition to the modern Hindu caste system, Prabhupada taught that one’s varna, or occupational standing, should be understood in terms of one’s qualities and the work one actually does, not by one’s birth.[172]
Moreover, devotional qualifications always supersede material ones.[173] Following Chaitanya, who challenged the caste system and undercut hierarchical power structures,[174] Prabhupada taught that anyone could take to the practice of bhakti-yoga and become self-realized through the chanting of God’s holy names, as found in the Hare Krishna maha-mantra.[158]
Prabhupada also emphasized the importance of self-sufficient farming communities as places where one could live simply and cultivate Krishna consciousness.[175]
Spiritual practices
Kirtan
The main spiritual practice Prabhupada taught was Krishna sankirtana (also simply called kirtan or kirtana), in which people musically chant together names of Krishna, especially in the form of the maha-mantra:
Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare
Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.
Kirtan literally means “description”, hence “praise”, and sankirtana indicates kirtan performed by people together.[176]
On the authority of traditional Sanskrit texts, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu had taught that Krishna kirtan is the most effective method for spiritual realization in the present age (Kali-yuga) – more effective than silent meditation (dhyana), speculative study (jnana), worship in temples (puja), or performing the various physical or mental disciplines of yoga. Krishna kirtan, he had taught, can be done by anyone, anywhere, at any time, and without hard-and-fast rules. Because the names of Krishna are “transcendental sounds”, identical with Krishna himself, the chanting is spiritually uplifting.[177]
When Prabhupada began his efforts to spread Krishna consciousness in the United States, he held kirtans in a Bowery loft, in his early storefront temples, in Tompkins Square Park in New York and Golden Gate Park in San Francisco, and wherever else he went.[178] Following Prabhupada, his disciples soon began holding kirtans regularly in streets, parks, temples, and other venues in major cities in North America and Europe and then in Latin America, Australia, Africa, and Asia.Because of Hare Krishna kirtan, Prabhupada’s movement itself came to be referred to simply as “Hare Krishna” and its followers as “Hare Krishnas”. [e]
Theologically speaking, the term sankirtana can extend from the public chanting of Hare Krishna to the distribution of books spoken by or about Krishna. Kirtan in the sense of public chanting is traditionally accompanied by kartals (hand cymbals) and mridangas (drums), and Prabhupada’s spiritual master and grand spiritual master had said that distribution of Krishna literature was the “great mridanga” because such distribution spreads Krishna consciousness still further.[179][115][180] Prabhupada therefore gave great importance to such distribution.
Association with devotees
Prabhupada’s tradition constantly makes the point that “association with saints inspires saintliness, association with devotees inspires devotion. The association of genuine devotees can exert a powerful effect upon one's consciousness”.[182] And so when Prabhupada incorporated ISKCON, its founding document included as one the Society’s purposes “To bring the members of the Society together with each other and nearer to Krishna”.[183]
Initiation vows
Prabhupada required of his followers, as a prerequisite for spiritual initiation, that they promise to follow four “regulative principles”: no illicit sex (that is, no sex outside of marriage), no eating of meat, fish, or eggs, no intoxicants (including drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, and even coffee and tea), and no gambling.[184][79] New initiates also vowed to daily chant sixteen meditative “rounds” of the Hare Krishna mantra (that is, to complete sixteen circuits of chanting the mantra on a 108-bead strand).[79]
Hearing of Srimad-Bhagavatam
For at least the last millennium, the Srimad-Bhagavatam has been “by far the most important work in the Krishna tradition” and “the scripture par excellence of the Krishnaite schools”.[185] It is sometimes described as “the ripened fruit of the Vedic tree”.[186][35] Accordingly, Prabhupada instituted daily classes on the Bhagavatam in all his centers,[187] and he spoke on Bhagavatam daily, wherever he went.[188]
Deity worship
In accordance with traditional Vaishnava teachings, Prabhupada introduced worship of Krishna in the form of a murti: figures cast in metal or carved in stone or wood to match descriptions of Krishna given in Vaishnava texts. Scholar of religion Kenneth Valpey writes:
“Prabhupāda explained that although omnipresent, Kṛṣṇa makes himself perceivable and hence worshipable through material elements which are, after all, his own ‘energies.’ Based on this reasoning one should understand the image of Kṛṣṇa to be ‘Kṛṣṇa personally,’ appearing in a way quite suitable for our vision,’ that is, perceivable by ordinary persons with ordinary powers of sight”.[189]
Prabhupada taught that because Krishna is personally present as the deity (the term Prabhupada used for such a form), worshiping the deity helps one develop loving exchanges with Krishna. Prabhupada installed deities in ISKCON temples around the world.[190]
Food prepared and offered to the deity of Krishna with devotion becomes sanctified as krishna-prasadam ("mercy of Krishna"). Prabhupada taught that eating only prasadam purifies one’s existence and helps one develop in bhakti. From the beginning of his mission Prabhupada distributed prasadam to visitors.[191] A weekly prasadam feast for the public has always been a program at all of ISKCON centers.[192] Prabhupada wrote, “The Hare Krishna Movement is based on the principle: chant Hare Krishna mantra at every moment, both inside and outside of the temples, and, as far as possible, distribute prasadam". [193]
Living in Vrindavan
Prabhupada’s predecessors such as Rupa Goswami had taught the value of living in Vrindavan (sometimes spelled “Vrindaban”), the sacred town between Agra and New Delhi that is held to be the site of Krishna’s rural “pastimes” on earth and therefore conducive to constant remembrance of Krishna. Prabhupada accordingly brought his disciples on pilgrimage to Vrindavan and there established the Krishna-Balaram temple. Yet with a broader outlook he wrote one disciple, “[W]herever you remain, if you are fully absorbed in your transcendental work in Krishna consciousness, that place is eternally Vrindaban. It is the consciousness that creates Vrindaban”.[194]
Principal writings
Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, who had specifically encouraged writing and publishing, at one meeting told Prabhupada: If you ever get money, print books.[8][195] So regardless of how busy or sometimes unwell Prabhupada might have been, he remained focused on producing books.[196] Prabhupada slept little, waking at 1:00 am every night[197] to translate and comment on the Srimad-Bhagavatam and other texts.[198] During the day he would give attention to guiding disciples and seeing to the affairs of his international society and its temples, and very early in the morning, while most people were asleep, he did most of his writing “because even with his age and uncertain health, he was unwilling to sacrifice his writing time for extra rest”.[199]
By 1970 he had translated the Bhagavad-gita, two cantos of the Bhagavatam, a summary study of its tenth canto, and a summary volume drawn from the expansive Caitanya-caritamrta. From 1970 on, his literary output slowed only slightly due to the demands of his expanding Hare Krishna movement.[200] His task, as scholars have observed, was not merely to translate the text but to translate an entire tradition.[201][202]
Historian of religion Thomas Hopkins relates that Prabhupada told him in a conversation in Philadelphia in 1975 that "the Gita provided the basic education on Krishna devotion, the Srimad-Bhagavatam was like graduate study, and the Caitanya-caritamrita was like postgraduate education for the most advanced devotees”.[203]
Hopkins says that by presenting in English such works as the Bhagavatam and Caitanya-caritamrta, Prabhupada made important texts accessible to the Western world that were simply not accessible before. Hopkins says, “[W]hat few English translations there were of the Bhagavata Purana and Caitanya-caritamrta were barely adequate and very hard to get hold of”.[202][f] Prabhupada, Hopkins says, “made these and other texts available in a way that they never were before” and “made the tradition itself accessible to the West”.[202]
Bhagavad-gita As It Is
In 1966-67, Prabhupada wrote a translation and commentary on the Bhagavad-gita he entitled Bhagavad-gita As It Is. It was first published by the Macmillan Company in 1968 in an abridged edition and later, in 1972, in full.[204] For each verse he first gives the Sanskrit Devanagari script, then a roman transliteration and word-for-word gloss, followed by his translation and a commentary, or “purport”.[205] Scholar of religion Richard H. Davis comments that this was “the first English translation of the Gita to supply an authentic interpretation from an Indian devotional tradition”.[206] It is “by far the most widely distributed of all English Gita translations”.[205] In 2015 Davis wrote, “The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust estimates that twenty-three million copies of Prabhupada’s translation have been sold, including the English original and secondary translations into fifty-six other languages”.[206] For Prabhupada, Davis says, “the essential fact about the Bhagavad-gita is its speaker. The Gita contains the words of Krishna, and Krishna is the ‘Supreme Personality of Godhead.’” In Prabhupada’s view, other translations lack authority because the translators use them to express their own opinions rather than the message of Krishna. In contrast, Prabhupada saw his task in presenting what Krishna wanted to say, and so he claimed to present the Bhagavad-gita “as it is”.[207]
Srimad-Bhagavatam
At once a sacred history, a theological treatise, and a philosophical text,[208] the Srimad-Bhagavatam “stands out by reason of its literary excellence, the organization that it brings to its vast material, and the effect that it has had on later writers”.[209] Praising the poetry of the Bhagavatam, scholar of religion Edwin Bryant says, “[S]cholars of the text have every right to say that ‘the Bhagavata can be ranked with the best of the literary works produced by mankind.’”[210]
It was this great work that Prabhupada, after taking sannyasa, set out to present in English, with, once again, the original Sanskrit text, its word-for-word meanings, a translation, and an in-depth commentary.[211] Also known as Srimad-Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavata Purana, or just the Bhagavata[212] Srimad-Bhagavatam is a work of twelve books (“cantos” was the word Prabhupada used) comprising more than fourteen thousand verse couplets.[213] “Srimad” means “beautiful” or “glorious”.[214]
Prabhupada began his translation and commentary on the Bhagavatam after accepting sannyasa in 1959, and by 1965 he had completed and published the first canto.[215] He worked on translating the Srimad-Bhagavatam into English for the rest of his life.[199]
The cantos were published one by one, as he finished them. He completed nine cantos and thirteen chapters of the tenth. The rest of the Bhagavatam was completed by his disciples.[199]
Thomas Hopkins, historian of religion, pointed out that by presenting in English such works as the Bhagavatam and Caitanya-caritamrta, Prabhupada made important texts accessible to the Western world that were simply not accessible before. Hopkins said: “[W]hat few English translations there were of the Bhagavata Purana and Caitanya-caritamrta were barely adequate and very hard to get hold of”.[202]
Hopkins recalls that, when he was working on his doctoral work in the early 1960s, the only copy of the Bhagavata Purana he was able to obtain was by interlibrary loan on microfilm from Harvard’s Widener Library. But Prabhupada, Hopkins said, “made these and other texts available in a way that they never were before” and “made the tradition itself accessible to the West”.[202]
Krsna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead
Considering his old age and the vast size of the Bhagavatam, Prabhupada knew he might not live to finish it. So in 1968 he undertook to present the Bhagavatam’s tenth canto — the essence of the work — in summary form as Krsna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead.[216]
This summary study is “Prabhupada’s own exposition of the story of Krishna as it is told in the Tenth Canto”.[199] It “laid out the account of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana that provides the images and stories central to Krishna devotion”.[217] In writing this commentary, Prabhupada also draws on a commentary by Sanatana Goswami,[218] one of the famed “six Goswamis” who were direct followers of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
As Bryant says:
“The tenth book of the Bhāgavata has inspired generations of artists, dramatists, musicians, poets, singers, writers, dancers, sculptors, architects and temple-patrons across the centuries. Its stories are well known to every Hindu household across the length and breadth of the Indian subcontinent, and celebrated in regional festivals all year round”.[219]
Prabhupada himself inspired artists among his disciples to provide the text with profuse full-color illustrations. Such illustrations became a feature of nearly all his books.[220]
A related work is Light of the Bhagavat, written by Prabhupada in Vrindavan in 1961, before he went to the West, but published only after his death. The book is a treatment of one chapter (chapter twenty) of the tenth canto. Prabhupada composed forty-eight commentaries for the chapter’s verses. The book is accordingly illustrated with forty-eight paintings.[221]
Ishopanishad
In 1969 Prabhupada published, again in his full verse-by-verse format, his translation and commentary for the Ishopanishad[222] — also known as the Īśa Upaniṣad or Īśāvāsya Upaniṣad [223], which in 1960 he had partially serialized in his Back to Godhead magazine.[222] The Ishopanishad, consisting of only eighteen mantras,[224] is considered one of the principal Upanishads.[225] In all indigenous collections of the Upanishads, the Iśopaniṣad comes first.[223] Its first verse, “highly regarded as a capsule of Vedic theology”,[35] presents a god-centered view of the universe.[222] The celebrated traditional commentator Shankara wrote, “One who is eager to rid himself of the suffering and delusion of saṁsāra, created by ignorance, and attain Supreme Bliss is entitled to read this Upaniṣad”.[226]
The Nectar of Devotion
Begun in 1968,[227] The Nectar of Devotion is a summary study of Rupa Goswami’s Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu, his “famous exposition of the principles of devotion”.[227] Scholar-practitioner Shrivatsa Goswami has described Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu as “a textbook of devotional practice, an exposition on the philosophy of devotion, and a study of devotional psychology”.[228] The Nectar of Devotion “gave access to Gaudiya Vaisnavism’s most important theological treatise on devotion”.[217]
Caitanya-caritamrta
Caitanya-caritamrta is the seventeenth-century account of the life and teachings of Chaitanya, who founded the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition.[227] Written in the Bengali language, it runs to more than 15,000 verses and “is regarded as the most authoritative work on Śrī Caitanya”, a work of “rare merit”, with “no parallel in the whole of Bengali literature”.[229] Scholar of religion Hugh Urban calls it “one of the greatest works in all of Indian vernacular literature”.[230]
Prabhupada completed his translation in 1974, within two years,[200] and it was published in seventeen volumes, again with verse-by-verse text, transliteration, word meanings, translation and commentary.[211] He based his commentary on the Bengali commentaries of his predecessors Bhaktivinoda Thakura and Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati.[231]
Before Srila Prabhupada’s translation, the work in English was simply unavailable. After Prabhupada’s edition came out, scholar Bruce J. Long wrote, “The appearance of an English translation of Kṛṣṇadāsa Kavirāja Gosvāmī's Śri Caitanya-caritāmṛta by A. C. Bhaktivedānta, Founder-Ācārya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, is a cause for celebration among both scholars in Indian Studies and lay-people seeking to enrich their knowledge of Indian spirituality”.[232]
Several years earlier, in 1968, Prabhupada published Teachings of Lord Caitanya.[233] The book offers a summary of selected portions of Caitanya-caritamrita.[234] [g]
The Nectar of Instruction
Prabhupada also wrote a verse-by-verse commentated translation of Rupa Goswami’s eleven-verse Upadeshamrita,[222] one of Rupa Goswami’s shortest works,[235] which provides concise directions on how to carry out devotional service.[134]
Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
In 1972 Prabhupada founded the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust (BBT), which manages the international publishing and distribution of his writings.[51] Apart from his major works, the BBT publishes various paperbacks derived from his lectures.[214] The BBT also publishes Back to Godhead, the magazine Prabhupada founded, in multiple languages.[236] Between 1973 and 1977, Prabhupada’s followers distributed several million books and other pieces of Krishna conscious literature every year in shopping malls, airports, and other public locations in the United States and worldwide.[237] As of 2023, his books had been translated into eighty-seven languages.[238] In 2022, the BBT printed more than two million pieces of literature.[239]
Critical assessments of Prabhupada’s writings
Shrivatsa Goswami has said, “Making these Vaiṣṇava texts available is one of Śrīla Prabhupāda’s greatest contributions. Apart from the masses, his books have also reached well into academic circles and have spurred academic interest in the Caitanya tradition”.[240] Further, he says, “The significance of making these texts available is not merely academic or cultural; it is spiritual. Jñāna, knowledge, is spread, proper doctrines are made known, people come closer to reality”.[240] Other academics, too, have applauded Prabhupada’s publications.[241]
But his edition of Bhagavad-gita, in particular, has come in for criticism as well. Eric Sharpe, scholar of religion, considers Prabhupada’s reading of Bhagavad-gita single-minded and fundamentalist.[242] Sanskrit scholar A.L. Herman concurs.[243] Another scholar, K. P. Sinha, takes exception to Prabhupada’s “misinterpretations and unkind remarks” directed toward Advaita Vedanta, the philosophy of absolute monism.[244][h]
The most detailed critical analysis by a Western, non-Hindu scholar comes from historian of religion Robert D. Baird.[242] Baird takes upon himself the task of not merely seeing Prabhupada as “an authentic proponent of Vaishnavism” but of examining as an academic scholar the way Prabhupada reads the Bhagavad-gita.[245]
Whereas many scholars, Baird writes, see “some degree of progression” in the Gita, with different themes emphasized in different parts of the book, Prabhupada “reads the complete teaching of the book, indeed of Vedic literature generally, into any passage”.[246] It appears “that he considers it legitimate to interpret any verse in the light of the whole system found in the Gītā whether it is explicitly mentioned in that verse of the Gītā or not”.[247] In this way, he reads “Krishna consciousness” even into portions of the text where Krishna is not explicitly mentioned.[248] Prabhupada cites later passages in the Gita to explain earlier passages.[249] Indeed, he even quotes from other texts in the canon (whether written before the Gita or after[249]) to indicate the intention of the Gita, “as though they have the same authority as the Gita itself”.[249] And so: “In all, a wide range of texts are used to serve as authorities for understanding the Gītā. Swami Bhaktivedanta not only treats specific texts in a way that would be unusual among Western scholars, but he sees specific texts in the light of the Vedas in general”.[250]
Whereas other scholars, Baird writes, would give great attention to the overall structure of the Gita, Prabhupada gives the structure scant notice, preferring instead to make this point: “In every chapter of Bhagavad-gītā, Lord Kṛṣṇa stresses that devotional service unto the Supreme Personality of Godhead is the ultimate goal of life”.[251]
Prabhupada uses the text of the Gita to present various aspects of Krishna theology.[252] And “he also goes beyond specific texts and the Gītā itself when he makes it the occasion for the inculcation of a Vaishnava lifestyle,”[247] typified by chanting the maha-mantra, regulating one’s sexual activity, offering food to Krishna, and following a vegetarian diet.[253] And so: “Swami Bhaktivedanta is more interested in expounding the principles of Krishna consciousness than in merely explicating the text at hand”.[254] In one instance cited, “the text recommends one thing [astanga-yoga] and Bhaktivedanta Swami cancels that and offers the mahāmantra”.[254]
As for competing interpretations: “Bhaktivedanta often seeks to show the superiority of the Vaishnava position and the error of other positions”.[255] “The position that is attacked with the most regularity and vigor is that of Advaita Vedanta,”[255] “the system of thought that is commonly used to provide the structure for Western understandings of ‘Hinduism’”,[165] whose advocates Prabhupada calls Mayavadins, impersonalists, or monists.[255] For Advaita Vedanta he reserves his strongest condemnations.[165]
Nor does Prabhupada only criticize “impersonalists”. Rather, “Scholars in particular come under Swami Bhaktivedanta’s condemnation because they are merely ‘mental speculators’”.[256] In Prabhupada’s view, Baird says, “Since these scholars are not surrendered to Krishna, they are not Krishna conscious; they are merely offering their own ideas rather than the truth within the paramparā system [the lineage of masters and disciples]”.[256] Prabhupada “seldom engages in the kind of argumentation that scholars are accustomed to when deciding between alternative positions”.[257] Instead he takes a position as a spiritual master within the disciplic succession and “merely declares" what is true.[257] And so, Baird says, “The gulf between Swami Bhaktivedanta’s presentation and that of the scholarly exegete is simply unbridgeable, for their purposes operate on different levels”.[245][i]
But what some scholars might see as faults, others see as virtues. Thomas Hopkins sees Prabhupada’s translations and purports as successfully conveying the meaning of the text precisely because Prabhupada draws upon the commentaries of his predecessors and brings to his work the understandings of his entire tradition.[259] Moreover, Hopkins says, Prabhupada does this in such a way that the entire text becomes comprehensible to a modern reader, not only theoretically but practically.[260] Translations of such texts as the Gita, Hopkins says, cannot be done mechanically.[261] The translator has to understand the spirit and the experience that lie behind the text.[261] Where Prabhupada’s translations expand the text, they do so “for the sake of making the meaning more clear, rather than obscuring it”.[262] Hopkins says, “Writing a commentary is not a merely intellectual or academic exercise—it has a practical goal: to engage people with a living spiritual tradition”.[260] Prabhupada, he says, brings the meaning of the text out of the past and into the present, giving it meaning in terms of people’s lives.[231]
Challenges and controversies
In Prabhupada’s efforts to establish and expand Krishna consciousness, some of the difficulties he faced were internal to his new and growing movement. He had to train disciples unaccustomed to Vaishnava culture and philosophy and engage them in furthering his Hare Krishna movement;[263] he had to set up and then guide his Governing Body Commission to see to ISKCON's global management. He often had to intervene when clashes and controversies within ISKCON grew out of hand. He had to sort out difficulties faced by individual disciples, ensure a proper understanding of his teachings, and, more broadly, transplant an entire cultural movement.[264] He also faced challenges from the outside world.
Cult image and “brainwashing”
Until the mid-1970s the attitude of the Western public towards Prabhupada and his movement was cordial. News reports tried to reliably describe the Hare Krishna devotees, their beliefs, and their religious practices. The spirit of curiosity prevailed, while hostility was almost nonexistent.[265]
But by the mid-1970s this changed. The rapidly expanding Hare Krishna movement — distinctive, foreign, highly visible, and vigorous (often over-vigorous) in spreading its message — became an early target for a nascent “anti-cult movement”. No longer was the Hare Krishna movement seen to represent an authentic spiritual tradition. Rather, it was now one of a myriad of “destructive cults” that won converts and took over their lives by “mind control” and “brainwashing”. When young adults, supposedly robbed of free will and “programmed” by mind control, became Hare Krishna devotees, some parents hired “deprogrammers” to kidnap them and “free them from the cult”. “Deprogrammings” typically involved days or weeks of isolation, browbeating, and intense verbal haranguing and harassment.[266][267][268][269]
After one such “deprogramming” failed, the New York City District Attorney’s Office charged two local Hare Krishna leaders with illegally imprisoning two Hare Krishna followers by brainwashing them.[270][j]
Prabhupada instructed his disciples to fight these charges, among other ways by entering his books into evidence.[271] Meanwhile, two hundred scholars signed a document defending ISKCON as an authentic Indian missionary movement.[272]
In March of 1977 a New York State Supreme Court justice threw out the charges and recognized that ISKCON represents a bona fide religious tradition.[270] Nonetheless, in America and Europe the “cult” label and image persisted for the rest of Prabhupada’s lifetime and beyond.[268]
As scholar James Beckford notes, in the 1970s Hare Krishna devotees became increasingly active in selling their literature and collecting donations from the public,[273] so they were sharply criticized for what was seen as harassing people for money at airports and other public places. As Bryant and Ekstrand comment, “Questionable fund-raising tactics, confrontational attitudes to mainstream authorities, and an isolationist mentality, coupled with the excesses of neophyte proselytizing zeal, brought public disapproval”[121] — something that Prabhupada had to deal with too.
Institutionalization
As ISKCON evolved towards being a worldwide organization, it suffered from the inevitable travails of institutionalization. Young disciples, mostly from an anti-establishment, anti-authoritarian background, became members of the GBC and found themselves running a worldwide institution. Preaching sometimes started giving way to revenue production; gender issues arose; leaders sometimes fell, and scandals broke out. Bureaucracy intruded on spontaneity, and many members left. As much as Prabhupada tried to leave management to the GBC, much of this he too had to deal with personally.[121][274]
Child abuse
Prabhupada directed his disciples to train children in boarding schools called gurukulas, where they would receive education from spiritual teachers. However, as reported by sociologist of religion E. Burke Rochford, through mismanagement these schools became like orphanages. After Prabhupada’s departure it came to light that physical and sexual abuse occured within these schools due to lack of oversight.[275]
Obstacles in India
In India, Prabhupada faced a special set of challenges. He had much to accomplish there, but his American and European disciples were inexperienced in how to get things done in India and even how to live there.[276]
When Prabhupada’s young American followers came to India in the early 1970s and began holding festivals, including public sankirtana, many Indians were surprised to see Westerners adopting Indian modes of worship and devotion. Some local people, including even some Indian officials, suspected that the American devotees must be undercover operatives of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).[277][278]
Outspoken and uncompromising as he was in the way he presented Krishna’s teachings, in India, as elsewhere, Prabhupada found himself battling with opposing views of all sorts.[279] Therefore another challenge came from Prabhupada’s consistent rejection of the common Hindu notion of caste by birth. Since Prabhupada, like his predecessors, insisted that anyone, from any race or nation, could become spiritually purified and fit to perform the duties of priests, he faced opposition from Hindu brahmins who held that performing such duties was an exclusive birthright of their caste.[280][281]
When Prabhupada resolved to build a temple on land in Juhu, Bombay (now Mumbai), the man who had sold ISKCON the land tried to swindle the devotees and take it back. The man had deep political connections in the Bombay municipality and employed lawyers and even thugs to drive the devotees off, but Prabhupada persisted and eventually won.[282][k]
Deviations
While working to establish his movement, Prabhupada had to deal with problems caused even by leading disciples, who, monks or not, could still hold on to intellectual baggage, disdain for authority, and ambitions for power.[283] In 1968 Prabhupada's first sannyasi disciple openly disregarded Prabhupada’s instructions to him and twisted core tenets of Prabhupada’s teachings. This foreshadowed succession problems and issues of authority that Prabhupada’s movement would face both during Prabhupada’s presence and after.[283]
Unlike Indian gurus who declared themselves avatars, divine appearances of God, Prabhupada from the very beginning of his preaching called himself only a servant or representative of God.[284] But in 1970 four of Prabhupada’s early sannyasis announced at a large ISKCON gathering that Prabhupada’s followers had failed to recognize that Prabhupada was actually Krishna, God himself. Prabhupada expelled those sannyasis from his Society (he eventually readmitted them, after they recanted their claim).[283]
In 1972, without consulting Prabhupada, eight of the twelve members of the GBC held a meeting in New York aimed at centralizing control of ISKCON's activities and finances. Their plans would have lessened Prabhupada's own oversight and set aside his emphasis on the autonomy of each ISKCON center. This prompted Prabhupada to suspend the entire GBC "until further notice", establish direct lines of communication with each temple's leaders, and re-emphasize spiritual purity, the selfless and voluntary nature of devotional life, and the exemplary conduct befitting ISKCON leaders. This, he said, is what he wanted, not corporate bureaucracy and excessive centralization. (He later unsuspended the GBC).[283]
In 1975 a clash broke out when a team of ten parties of itinerant sannyasis, assisted by two hundred brahmacharis, criss-crossed America, visiting ISKCON temples to extoll renunciation and a missionary spirit — and urge brahmacharis to abandon the temples and join the sannyasi parties. The temples, the team argued, were led by presidents who were grihasthas (married men), and grihasthas had a propensity for enjoyment that undermined what should be an austere temple atmosphere.[283]
The conflict reached its peak in 1976 in Mayapur at ISKCON’s annual global gathering when a sannyasi-dominated GBC passed resolutions severely restricting the role of women and families in ISKCON.[283] After hearing from both sides, Prabhupada came down against this type of discrimination, calling it “fanaticism”, and had the GBC undo the resolutions. Prabhupada said, "I cannot discriminate — man, woman, child, rich, poor, educated, or foolish. Let them all come, and let them take Krishna consciousness".[283]
Controversial statements
Prabhupada sometimes made statements that criticize various ideals of modern society or speak offensively of certain groups.[285]
Two essays by Ekkehard Lorenz in The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant[l] compile controversial statements made by Prabhupada on slavery, lower castes, Hitler, Darwin’s theory of evolution, the moon landing, and women.[289]
Reviewing the essays, scholar of religion Ravi Gupta writes that they depict Prabhupada as “racist, sexist, intellectually dishonest, ungrateful, unethical, unsophisticated, and unaware of the norms of the societies in which he lived” and blame his teachings “for condoning abuse of children, abuse of women, and abuse by leadership, while promoting dictatorship, intolerance, and autocratic rule by the guru”.[290] As scholar of religion Måns Broo puts it, the compilation “paints a picture of a not very pleasant man, one far removed from the Gaudiya Vaishnava ideals described in the classical texts of the tradition”.[291] And as yet another scholar of religion, Fred Smith, writes, “Lorenz, a former ISKCON member himself, vengefully presents a thoroughly damning view of Bhaktivedanta”.[287]
While Prabhupada’s followers have had to contend with what the statements say, scholars have studied and commented on them.[292][293]
- On slavery:
"The blacks were slaves. They were under control. And since you have given them equal rights they are disturbing, most disturbing, always creating a fearful situation, uncultured and drunkards. What training they have got? They have got equal rights? It is best, to keep them under control as slaves but give them sufficient food, sufficient cloth, not more than that. Then they will be satisfied".[294]
- On caste:
"Shudras [people of low caste] have no brain".[294] "Shudras does [sic] not require any training. Shudra means no training. Ordinary worker class. Otherwise, other three, especially two, namely the brahmins and kshatriyas, they require very magnificent training".[295]
- On Hitler, Jews, and the Holocaust:
"Sometimes [a person] becomes a great hero — just like Hiranyakashipu and Kamsa or, in the modern age, Napoleon or Hitler. The activities of such men are certainly very great, but as soon as their bodies are finished, everything else is finished".[296]
- On science:
"Darwin’s theory stating that no human beings existed from the beginning but that humans evolved after many, many years is simply nonsensical".[297] Prabhupada referred to Charles Darwin and his followers as “rascals”.[298]
- Prabhupada dismissed reports of the 1969 moon landing:
"Recently they have said that they have gone to the moon but did not find any living entities there. But Srimad-Bhagavatam and the other Vedic literatures do not agree with this foolish conception".[297]
- On women:
"Women cannot properly utilize freedom, and it is better for them to be dependent".[299] "Women in general should not be trusted".[300] "Women are generally not very intelligent".[300]
Responding to Lorenz’s article, Gupta (both an academic and an ISKCON member)[301] writes that Lorenz “simply quotes Prabhupada out of context and then interprets his statements with no regard to Chaitanya Vaishnava theology, the social contexts in which Prabhupada lived, or Prabhupada’s own application of his teachings”.[290]
Regarding context, Broo observes that when Prabhupada speaks, for example, about castes, the immediate context is that of an envisioned “ideal society” made up of self-sufficient agrarian communities in which people would be divided into different occupational groups “based not on hereditary but on individual qualifications”.[302]
As another example of context, one of Prabhupada’s followers notes in a journal review that Prabhupada was actually speaking of Hitler disparagingly, because the “great heroes” Hiranyakashipu and Kamsa with whom he compared Hitler were Puranic diabolical tyrants.[303]
Yet the reviewer admits that Prabhupada “did not usually condemn Hitler”.[303] Therefore Smith suggests that although scholars of religion will naturally view Prabhupada “within the context of his Gaudiya Vaishnava predecessors”, Prabhupada’s statements (such as those concerning Hitler) also “must be understood in the context of the intellectual and political culture in which he matured” — specifically that of mid-twentieth-century Bengal, brewing with anti-colonialist nationalism championed by such figures as Subhash Chandra Bose, and therefore more favorably disposed to Nazi Germany than to Great Britain.[304][m]
Both Broo and Smith also mention Prabhupada’s “flair for drama and overstatement”.[305][306] Prabhupada, it seems, loved to make politically incorrect statements to reporters.[302] As Broo comments, “It is difficult to decide how seriously any single remark is meant to be taken from a transcript”.[302]
Nonetheless, both Broo and Smith comment that this is not enough to clear Prabhupada from blame for the more radical of his politically incorrect statements.[306][305] Smith speaks of Prabhupada’s “racism”,[287] One disciple reviewer writes, “A few selected quotes about race and gender from the extensive Bhaktivedanta Vedabase do look unreasonable even in terms of Vaishnava values”,[307] and another disciple-academic notes, “Some of Prabhupada’s statements seem blatantly sexist”.[308]
Scholars have commented, however, on the contrast between such controversial statements and the full picture of what Prabhupada actually taught and did. Prabhupada’s statements about women, for instance, have received extensive consideration from Kim Knott, a scholar in religious studies who in relation to ISKCON describes her perspective as that of both an “outsider” and a “western feminist”.[309] Knott writes:
"What was Prabhupada’s view of these matters? It seems clear from his commentaries, lectures, and conversations that he endorsed the view of the potential liability of a woman’s body both for the soul that resides within it and for others. However, he was most adamant on the point that bhakti yoga, the path of Krishna Consciousness, provided the possibility of transcending the body, whether female or male".[310]
Knott relates Prabhupada’s telling two of his earliest women disciples, “If you think of yourselves as women, how will you make any advancement? You must see yourself as a spirit soul, eternal servant of Krishna”.[310]
Knott continues:
"This was his first point, then, that being a Vaishnavi [a female Vaishnava], a true servant of Krishna, changed the terms of the debate about women. Additionally, through his behavior and teachings he demonstrated that, as Vaishnavis, women devotees — irrespective of their material form compared to men — were equally acceptable as servants of Krishna, equally empowered with intelligence, equally open to spiritual advancement and to contributing to the advancement of others".[310]
Reflecting upon the tension between ancient philosophical ideals and immediate contemporary realities, Knott writes:
"It is commendable in the face of this tension that the founder of the Hare Krishna movement made a philosophy and practice that had once been largely closed to women available to them, allowing them effective equality with men and the opportunity to serve in the same ways despite his own cultural background and the ideal prescriptions of his tradition".[311]
In this way, she writes, Prabhupada took time, place, and circumstance into account and acted in the spirit of Krishna consciousness, “in the manner of Chaitanya”.[312]
Along the same lines, author Steven J. Rosen tells of a meeting between Prabhupada and a leading black disciple, Ghanasyama Dasa (later Bhakti Tirtha Swami), during the last months of Prabhupada’s life: “Srila Prabhupada smiled and called him near. Prabhupada then embraced him with tears of love and gratitude. Rubbing Ghanashyam’s head, Srila Prabhupada said, ‘Your life is successful, thank you very much.’”[313][n][o][p]
Commenting on underlying causes for such controversies, scholar of religion Larry Shinn attributes the conflict between his teachings and western cultural values to "[Prabhupada]'s insistence on the infallibility of the Krishna scriptures and (...) the authenticity of Prabhupada’s Krishna faith and practice".[316][q]
When Prabhupada’s controversial statements seem difficult to defend, his followers have responded in different ways: Some remain silent; others speak of context or allege that, because of negative biases, Prabhupada is being unfairly quoted; and still others are willing to distinguish between his statements they consider “absolute” and those they consider “relative” — that is, they accept “that some of Bhaktivedanta Swami’s teachings are relative to the circumstances and times in which he grew up and lived his life before coming to the US and therefore may or may not be true, in contrast to his absolute spiritual teachings”.[317][318] And yet other followers see this path as “exceedingly risky” — after all, who is to decide which teachings are relative and which are not? Broo concludes that this is an issue “not likely to be resolved soon”.[292]
Influence
By explaining the teachings of bhakti yoga and Gaudiya Vaishnavism and arousing interest in them worldwide, Prabhupada made a lasting contribution.[319] Through his writings and his movement, many Westerners have become aware of bhakti for the first time.[320] He translated and commented on important spiritual texts, particularly the Bhagavad-gita, the Srimad-Bhagavatam, and the Caitanya-caritamrta, making these texts accessible to a global audience.[202] His commentaries brought the traditional wisdom of these writings into a contemporary context, making possible a deeper comprehension of their spiritual meaning and its practical application in one’s life.[319]
Although the “steady procession of Hindu swamis” who had come to America before Prabhupada had generally aligned their views with the monistic Advaita Vedanta of Shankara (AD 788‒820) and the idea of “the ultimate absorption of the self into an impersonal Reality or Brahman”,[166] Prabhupada rejected Advaita Vedanta[321] and coherently argued that the Absolute is ultimately the Personality of Godhead.[322]
Sardella has written that in the twelve years between Prabhupada’s arrival in America and his demise, Prabhupada “managed to build ISKCON into an institution comprising thousands of dedicated members, establish Caitanya Vaishnava temples in most of the world’s major cities, and publish numerous volumes of Caitanya Vaishnava texts (in twenty-eight languages), tens of millions of which were distributed throughout the world”.[323] Prabhupada also spread the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra worldwide.[323]
In 2013 Rochford wrote, “[T]he fact that ISKCON has survived for nearly 50 years, despite significant change, is a testament to the devotees’ resilience and to the power of Prabhupada’s teachings and vision for ISKCON”.[324]
In India Prabhupada’s movement has become a well-respected institution, with recognition at all levels of Hindu society.[325][326] ISKCON has large temple complexes active in cities like Mumbai, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Kolkata.[327][328] ISKCON’s center in Mayapur has become an Eastern Indian place of pilgrimage for millions every year. Thousands of middle-class Hindus, both in India and elsewhere, have joined ISKCON.[327] And Hindus both in India and in the Hindu diaspora have provided ISKCON vast support.[329][326]
But Prabhupada's legacy also faces scrutiny on various fronts. Criticisms have emerged regarding the movement's organizational structure, controversies have arisen surrounding continuity of leadership after his passing,[330][331] and misdeeds and even criminal acts have been committed by some ISKCON members, including once-respected former leaders.[332][r] Concerns have been expressed about the movement's adaptability to modern values, especially concerning gender roles and societal norms.[333] And although ISKCON has benefited from the support and participation of a large and growing number of Indian families in its congregations outside India,[334][325] the “Hinduization” of ISKCON has in many places tended to diminish the involvement of other audiences.[335]
Nonetheless, Prabhupada's influence endures through his writings and ISKCON's ongoing activities. Despite significant setbacks, the movement he started continues to grow.[336]
Recognition
From scholars
Kim Knott writes that scholars describe Prabhupada as a charismatic spiritual leader and emphasize his “humanity” and “uniqueness”.[337] Prabhupada’s missionary successes in such a short period, and at such an advanced age, she writes, are extolled by scholars using terms such as “stunning”, “remarkable”, and “extraordinary”.[337] In the same vein, Klaus Klostermaier, scholar of Hinduism and Indian history, refers to Prabhupada as "probably, the most successful propagator of Hinduism abroad".[338]
Representing such thoughts, Harvey Cox, American theologian and Professor of Divinity Emeritus at Harvard University, said:
There aren't many people you can think of who successfully implant a whole religious tradition in a completely alien culture. That's a rare achievement in the history of religion. In his case it's even all the more remarkable for his having done this at such an advanced age. When most people would have already retired, he began a whole new phase of his life by coming to the United States and initiating this movement. He began simply, with only a handful of disciples. Eventually he planted this movement deeply in the North American soil, throughout other parts of the European-dominated world, and beyond. Although I didn't know him personally, the fact that we now have in the West a vigorous, disciplined, and seemingly well-organized movement–not merely a philosophical movement or a yoga or meditation movement, but a genuinely religious movement--introducing the form of devotion to God that he taught, is a stunning accomplishment. So when I say [he’s] “one in a million,” I think that's in some ways an underestimate. Perhaps he was one in a hundred million.[339]
From officials
Prabhupada's success in spreading Indian spirituality among non-Indians across the world brought him acclaim from Indian political leaders.[340]
Indian Prime Ministers Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Deve Gowda[341], Narendra Modi, and Indian Presidents Shankar Dayal Sharma and Pranab Mukherjee have praised Prabhupada and his work.[340]
In 1998, speaking at the opening ceremony of an ISKCON temple in New Delhi, Prime Minister Vajpayee said:
"If today the Bhagavad Gita is printed in millions of copies in scores of Indian languages and distributed in all nooks and corners of the world, the credit for this great sacred service goes chiefly to ISKCON.... For this one accomplishment alone, Indians should be eternally grateful to the devoted spiritual army of Swami Prabhupada's followers. The voyage of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to the United States in 1965 and the spectacular popularity his movement gained in a very short spell of twelve years must be regarded as one of the greatest spiritual events of the century".[327]
Releasing a 125-rupee commemorative coin on the occasion of Prabhupada's 125th birth anniversary,[343] Prime Minister Modi praised Prabhupada for his efforts “to give India’s most priceless treasure to the world” and said that what Prabhupada was able to accomplish in spreading the thought and philosophy of India to the world “was nothing less than a miracle.”[342]
On the fiftieth anniversary of Prabhupada’s voyage to the West, US Congresswoman Tulsi Gabbard praised the "compassion that drove Srila Prabhupada to attempt something so brave and so daring to deliver the message of Lord Chaitanya and the Holy Name to all of mankind".[344]
Commemoration
Shrines, memorials, museums
In keeping with Gaudiya-Vaisnava rites, after Prabhupada's death at the Krishna-Balarama temple in Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh, India), his disciples interred his body on the temple premises and erected a marble samadhi, or shrine, over his burial site.[345][346] In Mayapur (West Bengal), they built a much larger pushpa-samadhi — a shrine sanctified with flowers from Prabhupada's burial ceremony.[347] Daily puja (traditional worship) is offered to larger-than-life statues of Prabhupada at both sites.[347]
Another shrine is dedicated to Prabhupada in New Vrindaban (West Virginia, USA), where a residence built to host Prabhupada during his occasional visits evolved into the elaborate Prabhupada's Palace of Gold.[348] After opening to the public in 1979, two years after Prabhupada’s death, the memorial site is now a place of worship and an attraction for pilgrims and tourists,[349] listed in America’s National Register of Historic Places.[350] Other rooms in which Prabhupada stayed while in Vrindavan, Mumbai, Los Angeles, London, Melbourne and several other places around the world have been preserved as museums.
[[[File:Prabhupada's birth site in Kolkata.jpg|alt=A black rectangular pedestal with an inscription, topped by a white ornate marble slab draped with a flower garland, standing under a double-branched tree.|left|thumb|200x200px|Prabhupada's birthplace.]] Prabhupada’s birthplace, in the Tollygunge neighborhood of Kolkata, was inaugurated as a memorial site in 2001, on the 125th anniversary of Prabhupada’s birth, by West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee.[351] In the Ultadanga neighborhood of Kolkata, the building, known as Bhaktivinode Asan where Prabhupada first met his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, has also been restored as a heritage site.[352]
On August 13, 2015, the fiftieth anniversary of Prabhupada’s departure from Kolkata to the United States, a two-meter-high bronze monument, created by Ukrainian sculptor Volodymyr Zhuravel, was unveiled in Kolkata by the Governor of West Bengal Keshari Nath Tripathi and Lieutenant Governor of Pondicherry Kiran Bedi.[353] The monument was created in two parts — one depicting Prabhupada’s departure for America, the other his arrival. After the monument was unveiled, the “departure” part was installed at the ISKCON temple in Kolkata, the “arrival” part in front of the ISKCON temple in Boston.[354]
Biographies, memoirs, diaries
In 2008 Ketola wrote that there were more than thirty historical, biographical, and autobiographical works centering on Prabhupada.[355] Since then they have increased.
Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami’s official six-volume biography Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta (“carefully researched”, Ketola reports[355]) has more recently been joined by a shorter biography, Swami in a Strange Land, by Joshua Greene.[356] Both authors are Prabhupada’s disciples. Among memoirs that focus on specific times or places, Ketola mentions several, including Hayagriva Dasa’s The Hare Krishna Explosion.[355])
Ketola also notes two published diaries kept by direct assistants of Prabhupada: Tamal Krishna Goswami’s TKG’s Diary and Hari Sauri Dasa’s multi-volume Transcendental Diary.[s]
- Ācārya: The Lifestory of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada by Bhaktisiddhanta Das (2021), ASIN B095PTSKC7
- Ācārya: Portraits of His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada by Sesa Dasa (1996), ISBN 978-0947259051
- Blazing Sadhus by Achyutananda Das (2016), ISBN 978-1537508863
- By His Example: The Wit and Wisdom of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada by Guru Das (2004), ISBN 978-1887089364
- Chasing Rhinos With The Swami by Shyamasundar Das (2016), in 3 volumes, ISBN 978-1495177088
- Dancing White Elephants: Traveling with Srila Prabhupada in India, August 1970—March 1972 by Giriraj Swami (2023), ISBN 978-1-925850-03-1
- Five Years, Eleven Months and a Lifetime of Unexpected Love: A Memoir by Visakha Dasi (2016), ISBN 978-1522838449
- The Great Transcendental Adventure: Pastimes of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in Australia and New Zealand by Kurma Dasa (1999), ISBN 9780947259228
- The Hare Krishna Explosion: The Birth of Krishna Consciousness in America, 1966‒1969 by Hayagriva Dasa (1985), ISBN 9780932215017
- He Lives Forever by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (2022), ISBN 979-8353149606
- I'll Build You a Temple — The Juhu Story by Giriraj Swami (2021), ISBN 978-1925850017
- In Conversation with Srila Prabhupada by Lokanath Swami (2016), ASIN B09HKRBMHG
- ISKCON in the 1970s by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (1997), ISBN 978-0911233728
- Jaya Srila Prabhupada! by Bhakti Vikasa Swami (2014), ISBN 978-9382109112
- Journey to the Pacific Rim by Bali Mardan Das, ISBN 9788193291801
- Life with the Perfect Master: A Personal Servant's Account by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (2022), ISBN 979-8411706741
- Memories – Anecdotes of a Modern–Day Saint by Siddhanta Dasa (2020), in 4 volumes ISBN 9788192970226, 9780972259712, 9789389050806
- Miracle on Second Avenue by Mukunda Goswami (2011), ISBN 978-0981727349
- Mission in the Service of His Divine Grace: Birth of of the Hare Krsna Movement in South Africa by Riddha Dasa (2003), ISBN 978-1901593013
- The Mayapur Vrindavan Festivals with Srila Prabhupada (1972‒77) by Lokanath Swami (2020), ISBN 9780620694827
- My Days with Prabhupada: A Young Man’s Path to God in the Hare Krishna Movement by Umapati Swami (2016), ASIN B01EVBQ6M4
- My Glorious Master: Remembrances of Prabhupada's Mercy on a Fallen Soul by Bhurijana Dasa (1996), ISBN 9780992521943
- My Memories of Srila Prabhupada by Bhakti Vikasa Swami (2012), ISBN 978-9382109303
- Ocean of Mercy by Bhakti Charu Swami (2016), ISBN 978-0892135332
- Our Srila Prabhupada — A Friend to All by Mulaprakrti Devi (2000), ASIN B004Q6XSXA
- A Place of Sandalwood and Roses, by Govinda Dasi (2023), ISBN 979-8987382912
- Prabhupada Antya-lila: Final Pastimes of Srila Prabhupada by Tamal Krishna Goswami (1988), ISBN 978-0936979014
- Prabhupada Appreciation by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (2022), ISBN 979-8357966339
- Prabhupada at Radha-Damodara by Mahanidhi Swami (2013), ASIN B00CTRMKKK
- Prabhupãda in Malaysia by Janananda Das Goswami (2020), ISBN 978-8193859711
- Prabhupada-lila by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami (1987), ISBN 978-0911233360
- Prabhupada Meditations by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (2023) in 2 volumes, ISBN 979-8446353095
- Prabhupada: Messenger Of The Supreme Lord by Sastvarupa Dasa Goswami (2014), ISBN 978-8189574307
- Prabhupāda Nectar: Anecdotes from the Life of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (1984), ISBN 9780911233223
- Prabhupada Stories by Govinda Dasi
- Servant of the Servant by Tamal Krishna Goswami (2019), ISBN 9788193992166
- Srila Prabhupada and His Disciples in Germany by Bhakti Gauravani Goswami (2021), ISBN 9789391545048
- Srila Prabhupada is Coming: My Personal Memories of His Divine Grace, A.C. Bhaktivehanta Swami Prabhupada by Mahamaya Dasi (2000), ISBN 9780970453013
- Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (2008), in 7 volumes, ISBN 978-8189574222
- Srila Prabhupada Uvaca by Srutakirti Dasa
- Swami in a Strange Land by Joshua M. Greene (Yogeshvara Dasa) (2018), ISBN 9789387944091
- TKG's Diary: Prabhupãda's Final Days by Tamal Krishna Goswami (1999), ISBN 9788187216124
- A Transcendental Diary by Hari Sauri Dasa (2021), in 5 volumes, ISBN 978-1880404379
- Vrindaban Days: Memories of an Indian Holy Town by Howard Wheeler (Hayagriva Swami) (1990) ISBN 9780932215208
- With Srila Prabhupada in the Early Days (1966‒1969): A Memoir by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami (1997), ISBN 978-0911233841
- "You Cannot Leave Boston" by Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami, in 2 volumes (1998) ASIN B09HKSY9L7
Film, and filmed memoir collections
In 1996 Gaurav Seth produced the fifty-five-minute biographical film Prabhupada: A Lifetime in Preparation.[358] In 2017 John Griesser, a Prabhupada disciple, produced an uncritical 91-minute film: Hare Krishna! The Mantra, the Movement, and the Swami who started it All.[359]
Disciples have also undertaken two video projects collecting memories of Srila Prabhupada, one entitled Remembering Srila Prabhupada,[360] the other Following Srila Prabhupada.[361]
The Bhaktivedanta Archives, in North Carolina, serves as a repository for Srila Prabhupada’s manuscripts and letters, for photographs of Srila Prabhupada, and for audio recordings.[t]
Stamps, coin, and plaque
In 1996 the Government of India issued a commemorative stamp in Prabhupada’s honor and in 2021 a 125-rupee commemorative coin.[362]
In 2001 the City of New York installed a plaque in Tompkins Square Park to mark the “Hare Krishna tree”, the elm under which Prabhupada and his early followers first began chanting the Hare Krishna mantra in 1966.[363]
Schools
Various ISKCON-related schools and other institutions have been named after Srila Prabhupada, including the Bhaktivedanta Research Centre in Kolkata, which holds a full collection of the works of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati as well as publications from the first twenty years of the Gaudiya Math.[364]
Roads
In 1978 a prominent entrance road into Vrindavan was named Bhaktivedanta Swami Marg after Prabhupada.[365]
12. Bibliography
Translations with commentary
- Bhagavad-gītā As It Is, ISBN 9780892131341
- Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana) (multiple volumes) ISBN 9789177693000 (completed by disciples)
- Śrī Īśopaniṣad, ISBN 9780892131389
- Sri Caitanya-caritamrta (multiple volumes), ISBN 9780947259068
- The Nectar of Instruction, ISBN 9780912776859
Summary studies
- Teachings of Lord Caitanya, ISBN 9780912776088
- Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead (multiple volumes), ISBN 9780892133338
- The Nectar of Devotion, ISBN 9780912776057
Other books
- Easy Journey to Other Planets (1990), ISBN 9780912776101
- The Perfection of Yoga, ISBN 9780912776361
- Beyond Birth and Death, ISBN 9780912776415
- On the Way to Kṛṣṇa, ISBN 9780912776392
- Rājā-vidyā: The King of Knowledge, ISBN 978-1602930094
- Elevation to Kṛṣṇa Consciousness, ISBN 9780912776439
- Kṛṣṇa Consciousness: The Matchless Gift, ISBN 9780912776613
- Kṛṣṇa Consciousness: The Topmost Yoga System, ISBN 9780912776118
- Perfect Questions, Perfect Answers, ISBN 9780912776620
- Teachings of Lord Kapila, the Son of Devahūtī, ISBN 9789383095988
- The Science of Self-Realization, ISBN 9781845990398
Posthumously published
- Mukunda-mala-stotra: The Prayers of King Kulasekhara, ISBN 9780892132751 (completed by disciples)
- Narada-bhakti-sutra, ISBN 9780892132737 (completed by disciples)
- Light of the Bhagavata, ISBN 9789171492678
- Message of Godhead, ISBN 9780892132997
- Renunciation Through Wisdom, ISBN 9780947259044
- Beyond Illusion and Doubt, ISBN 9780892133369
- Teachings of Queen Kunti, ISBN 9780892131020
- Civilization And Transcendence, ISBN 9780892132980
- Dharma, The Way Of Transcendence, ISBN 9780892133260
- Kṛṣṇa, the Reservoir of Pleasure, ISBN 9780892131495
- The Path of Perfection, ISBN 9789382176510
- The Quest for Enlightenment, ISBN 9780892132928
Notes
- ^ After the unification of the Church of Scotland in 1929, the institution became known as Scottish Church College. "Sen, Asit and John Abraham. Glimpses of college history, 2008 (1980). Retrieved on 2009-10-03" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20091222083113/http://scottishchurch.ac.in/College%20History02.pdf
- ^ A term used in the Gaudiya Math and ISKCON for denoting disciples of the same diksha-guru.
- ^ Prabhupada’s travels to and from Europe and his programs there are described in Srila Prabhupada-lilamrita, volumes 4 and 5.[61]
- ^ Kotovsky was the head of the Department of India and South Asia of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
- ^ See the etymologies for “Hare Krishna” in, for example, the Oxford English Dictionary, the Merriam-Webster dictionaries, and Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ Hopkins recalls that, when he was working on his doctoral work in the early 1960s, the only copy of the Bhagavata Purana he was able to obtain was by interlibrary loan on microfilm from Harvard’s Widener Library.[202]
- ^ Scholar and disciple Tamal Krishna Goswami writes that Prabhupada’s first publishing Bhagavad-gītā As It Is in abridged form and publishing summary studies from the Bhagavatam and Caitanya-caritamrita before completing full translations and commentaries “expresses both an urgency that Prabhupāda felt in transmitting these works as essential sacred texts and the weightiness that each of these three foundational texts possessed within the tradition that Prabhupāda represented”.[234]
- ^ For a discussion of the criticisms by Herman, see Tamal Krishna Goswami, A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti (2012) pp 75–76.[243] Goswami leaves Sinha’s critique aside on the grounds that it is “clearly a sectarian polemic rather than an academic study” and for a rebuttal points us to Gerald Surya’s review of Sinha’s "A critique of A.C. Bhaktivedanta" in ISKCON Communications Journal, 7:2, December 1999, http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html.
- ^ For a discussion of Baird’s critique, see Tamal Krishna Goswami's A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti: Essential Teachings of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (2012), pp. 66–71.[258]
- ^ The case is People v. Murphy (N.Y. 1977) 98 Misc.2d 235.
- ^ For a book-length telling of this saga, see I’ll Build You a Temple by Giriraja Swami.
- ^ The editors of the volume, Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand, sought to include in the book “a wide range of voices”, including those not only of well-credentialed academics but also of current ISKCON members and of former members (in the editors’ words, the movement’s “most vocal” critics),[286] of whom Lorenz is one.[287] According to Bryan and Ekstrand, this lack of strictly academic treatment in favor of real-life reflections contributed to the "interplay between detached analysis and passionate advocacy" that "brings the volume to life and constitutes its strength".[288]
- ^ Bose's influence and his efforts to mobilize people against British rule significantly contributed to the growth of anti-British sentiments in Bengal and throughout India. Nazi Germany was sympathetic to India's independence and during the World War II offered financial and military assistance to Bose's Indian National Army in their struggle against Great Britain.
- ^ Rosen comments, “For Prabhupada to be crying and embracing and rubbing the head of his disciple was something very special. Soon, all the devotees around the world were hearing of Ghanashyam’s good fortune.” Bhakti-tirtha Swami tells of the incident in an online video: https://vanipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_Tirtha_Swami_Remembers_Srila_Prabhupada, YouTube video, starting at 22:00.
- ^ Telling of the same incident, religious studies scholar Akshay Gupta mentions that Prabhupada rarely showed such abundant affection to his disciples, including those who were white or Indian. [314]
- ^ Similarly, Bhuta-bhavana Dasa, one of Prabhupada’s African-American disciples, tells of a meeting in which Srila Prabhupada said to him and other black disciples who had come to Africa to spread Krishna consciousness, “Four hundred years ago your ancestors were taken away from here as slaves. But, ah, just see, you have returned as masters.” Bhuta-bhavana comments, “Generally in the black community if you refer to slavery, it’s not a very jovial thing, but Prabhupada made it wonderful. We had returned to Africa in Krishna consciousness”.[315]
- ^ Larry Shinn writes: "Perhaps Prabhupada’s piousness centering upon his deep faith in Krishna was both his greatest strength and the source of ISKCON’s most consistent tension in America. As an acharya or teacher of the Krishna scriptures and devotional faith, Prabhupada was a “holy man,” a guru whose translations of the Sanskrit scripture of the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and of Chaitanya’s teachings were the center of his own devotional life and of his education of his new American devotees. His insistence on the infallibility of the Krishna scriptures and his interpretation of them continues to be a source of unrest within ISKCON, and certainly between ISKCON and its surrounding culture.... In one respect, it was the authenticity of Prabhupada’s Krishna faith and practice that enticed new converts to ISKCON and also caused the society to stand out in contrast, and even opposition, to western religious and cultural values".[316]
- ^ Sources that have discussed ISKCON’s post-charismatic crises and disruptions include Bryant and Ekstrand (2004), Dwyer and Cole (2007), and Rochford (2007).
- ^ E. Burke Rochford writes in his Foreword to one volume, “For scholars and students of religion the material presented represents a critically important historical record”. Foreword to A Transcendental Diary: November 1975–April 1976, p. xv[357]
- ^ https://www.prabhupada.com/About/AAbout.html. Claire C. Robison describes the Archives, though not by name, in “ISKCON–Christian Encounters,” Chapter 16 in The Routledge Handbook of Hindu-Christian Relations. p=194
Citations
- ^ a b c d e Tamal Krishna Goswami 2012, p. 22.
- ^ a b c d e f Ketola 2008, p. 66.
- ^ a b Chryssides 1999, p. 171.
- ^ Bhat 2004, p. 61.
- ^ Zeller 2010, p. 74.
- ^ a b Tamal Krishna Goswami 2012, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e Shinn 1987, p. 34.
- ^ a b c d e Shinn 1987, p. 35.
- ^ Ravindra Svarupa Dasa 1985, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Mitchiner 1992, p. 146.
- ^ Emmott 1965, p. 160.
- ^ a b Zeller 2010, p. 76.
- ^ a b Sooklal 1986, p. 24.
- ^ Hopkins 1989, p. 50.
- ^ Melton 1992, p. 233.
- ^ Valpey 2006, p. 97.
- ^ Sardella 2013, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Rochford 1985, p. 10.
- ^ Broo 2006, p. 41.
- ^ Judah 1974, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Zeller 2010, p. 80.
- ^ a b c Sherbow 2004, p. 131.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, p. 86.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, pp. 65–66, 69.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, pp. 77–78, 93.
- ^ Sooklal 1986, p. 25.
- ^ Zeller 2010, p. 81.
- ^ a b Knott 1986, p. 28.
- ^ Melton 1991, p. 449.
- ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 2.
- ^ a b Nye 2001, p. 10.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, p. 92.
- ^ a b c Rahul Peter Das 1998.
- ^ Sooklal 1986, p. 26.
- ^ a b Shinn 1987, p. 36.
- ^ Zeller 2010, p. 14.
- ^ Satsvarupa dasa Goswami 2002, pp. 104‒105.
- ^ Eck 1979.
- ^ Zeller 2010, p. 92.
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Media
News
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- Hanz, Joyce (8 January 2023), Daycation: Palace of Gold in West Virginia on National Register of Historic Places, TribLIVE, retrieved 27 February 2024
- Jaisinghani, Bella (13 August 2015), "Iskcon founder's journey to west completes 50 years", The Times of India, Mumbai
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- Kazmin, Amy Louise (25 April 1998), "The Hare Krishnas caught up with me in New Delhi", Financial Times,
At the ceremony, Vajpayee praised devotees for their work towards 'the globalisation of the Gita'. He cited the rapid spread of the movement as proof of 'the disillusionment of leading western minds' with 'materialist ideologies that are incapable of satisfying the real needs of man'. For the Hare Krishnas, long dismissed as fringe weirdos, it was the ultimate stamp of legitimacy.
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[Hare Krishnas] are now part of the culture in ways that the average person couldn't have imagined some 20 or 25 years ago. ... ISKCON communities offer premarital counseling, interfaith activities, social-service programs and baby-sitting—just the kind of institutional structure that many early converts were fleeing.
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If today the Bhagavad Gita is printed in millions of copies in scores of Indian languages and distributed in all nooks and corners of the world, the credit for this great sacred service goes chiefly to ISKCON. ... For this one accomplishment alone, Indians should be eternally grateful to the devoted spiritual army of Swami Prabhupada's followers. The voyage of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada to the United States in 1965 and the spectacular popularity his movement gained in a very short spell of twelve years must be regarded as one of the greatest spiritual events of the century.
- Popham, Peter (12 April 1998), "India's PM takes to robots for Krishna", The Independent,
Some people say my government is opposed to globalisation. But let me say I am all in favour of the globalisation of the message of the Bhagavad Gita. ... What we need today is the application on a national scale of the work-related ideology of the Bhagavad Gita. This will create a new work culture, and a new work culture will create a new India.
- Press Trust of India (13 August 2015), "Devotees from 106 countries practice yoga to mark ISKCON", Business Standard, Kolkata
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[T]here is a growing sense that the Hare Krishnas are forming a useful bridge to Britain's Indian community - and at the same time becoming reasonable and articulate exponents to the English of the Vedic way. Perhaps the Hare Krishnas are coming of age.
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Officials
- India Govt Mint (2021), PM Modi Released Rs 125 Commemorative Coin To Honour ISKCON Founder
- Modi, Narendra (2021a), PM releases a special commemorative coin on the occasion of 125th Birth Anniversary of Srila Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Ji
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It is as if millions of minds are bound by one emotion and millions of bodies are connected by one common consciousness! This is the Krishna consciousness which has been spread by Prabhupada Swami ji to the entire world. (...) Prabhupada Swami was not only a supernatural devotee of Krishna, but he was also a great devotee of Bharat. (...) Srila Prabhupada Swami always used to say that he is traveling in the countries because he wants to give India's most priceless treasure to the world. (...) Swami ji's revered Guruji Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati ji saw that potential in him and instructed him to take the thought and philosophy of India to the world. Srila Prabhupada ji made this command of his Guru his mission, and the result of his efforts is visible in every corner of the world today. (...) When we visit any country and when people greet us with 'Hare Krishna', we feel so much warmth and pride. (...) Srila Prabhupada and ISKCON took up this great responsibility of propounding Bhakti Yoga to the world. He worked to connect Bhakti Vedanta with the consciousness of the world. This was no ordinary task. He started a global mission like ISKCON at the age of about 70, when people become inactive. This is a huge inspiration for our society and for every person. (...) Prabhupada Swami remained active for his resolutions from his childhood till his whole life. When Prabhupada ji went to America by sea, he was almost empty-pocket; he had only Gita and Shrimad Bhagwat! During the journey, he suffered heart attacks twice. When he reached New York, he did not have any arrangements for food and no place to stay. But what the world saw in the next 11 years, in the words of revered Atal ji, it was nothing less than a miracle.
Videos
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ISKCON-related
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- Bhuta Bhavana Dasa (2018). Siddhanta Dasa (ed.). Prabhupada Memories. Vol. 47. Event occurs at 18:18.
- Child Protection Office (2018), ISKCON Child Protection Guidelines (PDF)
- Das, Daiva Rama (29 February 2020), "Major Street in Ahmedabad Renamed In Honor of Srila Prabhupada", ISKCON News, Gujarat, India
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- ISKCON (9 July 2011). "India". ISKCON Centers - World wide directory of official ISKCON Centres & Branches. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1965), The Jaladuta Diary (PDF), The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
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- PrabhupadaMemories. "Prabhupada Memories". Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- Reviews, Scholarly Appreciations of Srila Prabhupada's Books, retrieved 23 August 2013
- Smullen, Madhava (20 August 2018), "Srila Prabhupada and Jaladuta Sculpture Installed Outside ISKCON Boston", ISKCON News
- Vanipedia (2024). "Timeline of Srila Prabhupada's Life".
- Vedabase (14 February 1977). "Room Conversation — Varṇāśrama System Must Be Introduced". Online Vedabase. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
- Vedabase (21 May 1973). "Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 3.1.10". Online Vedabase. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
- Vedabase (28 July 2021). "Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam 4.25.10". Online Vedabase. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
Works by Prabhupada's followers
- Greene, Joshua (2006), Here Comes the Sun. The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, Los Angeles, CA: Turner Publishing, ISBN 9780471690214
- Greene, Joshua (2016), Swami in a Strange Land, San Rafael: Mandala Publishing, ISBN 9781608876440
- Griesser, John; Griesser, Jean; Ross, Lauren (15 December 2017), Hare Krishna: The Mantra, the Movement and the Swami Who Started It All, India: Spirituality & Practice, retrieved 29 August 2023
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: CS1 maint: year (link)
- Hayagriva Dasa (1970), "The Spiritual Master: Emissary of the Supreme Person" (PDF), Back to Godhead, no. 38
- Hayagriva Dasa (1985), The Hare Krishna Explosion: The Birth of Krishna Consciousness in America, 1966-1969 (PDF), Moundsville, WV: Palace Press
- Jayadvaita Swami (2015), Vanity Karma: Ecclesiastes, the Bhagavad-gita, and the meaning of life, Los Angeles, CA: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, ISBN 9780892134496
- Kaunteya Das (2022), Tough Questions, Difficult Answers on Srila Prabhupada’s Contentious Remarks, Eye of the Storm Press
- Kurma Dasa (1999), The Great Transcendental Adventure: Pastimes of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in Australia and New Zealand, Botany, Australia: Chakra Press, ISBN 9780947259228
- Mukunda Goswami (2011), Miracle on Second Avenue: Hare Krishna Arrives in the West, Badger, CA: Torchlight Publishing, ISBN 978-0981727349
- Ravindra Svarupa Dasa (1993), "Disease", Back to Godhead magazine, 27 (1), The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
- Rosen, Steven J. (2007b), Black Lotus: The Spiritual Journey of an Urban Mystic, Hari-Nama Press, ISBN 979-8640550719
- Satsvarupa dasa Goswami (2002), Srila Prabhupada-lilamrta, Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, ISBN 9780892133550
- Satyaraja Dasa (2011), "A Spiritual Happening on the Lower East Side", Back to Godhead, 45 (2)
- TheTVDB. "Following Srila Prabhupada". The TVDB. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- Wheeler, Howard (1977), "Matchless Gifts", Back to Godhead, 12 (3–4), The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust: 12
External links
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