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{{Short description|Species of bacterium}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Anaplasma bovis
| taxon = Anaplasma bovis
⚫
| authority = Dumler et al. 2001
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Proteobacteria]]
| classis = [[Alphaproteobacteria]]
| ordo = [[Rickettsiales]]
| familia = [[Anaplasmataceae]]
| genus = ''[[Anaplasma]]''
| species = '''''A. bovis'''''
| binomial = ''Anaplasma bovis''
⚫
| binomial_authority = Dumler et al. 2001
}}
}}


'''''Anaplasma bovis'''''<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dumler JS, Barbet AF, Bekker CP |title=Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila |journal=Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=51 |issue=Pt 6 |pages=2145–65 |year=2001 |pmid=11760958 |doi=10.1099/00207713-51-6-2145|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> is gram negative, obligate intracellular organism, which can be found in wild and domestic ruminants, and potentially a wide variety of other species. It is one of the last species of the Family Anaplasmaceae (formerly Ehrlichiaceae) to be formally described. It preferentially infects host monocytes<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Rymaszewska|first=A.|date=2008|title=Bacteria of the genus Anaplasma – characteristics of Anaplasma and their vectors: a review|url=http://www.vri.cz/docs/vetmed/53-11-573.pdf|journal=Veterinarni Medicina|volume=11|pages=573–584|via=}}</ref>, and is often diagnosed via blood smears, PCR, and ELISA. ''A. bovis'' is not currently considered zoonotic, and does not frequently cause serious clinical disease in its host (although clinical disease has been noted in calves). This organism is transmitted by tick vectors, so tick bite prevention is the mainstay of ''A. bovis'' control, although clinical infections can be treated with tetracyclines. This organism has a global distribution, with infections noted in many areas, including Korea<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=Jinho|last2=Han|first2=Du-Gyeong|last3=Ryu|first3=Ji-Hyoung|last4=Chae|first4=Jeong-Byoung|last5=Chae|first5=Joon-Seok|last6=Yu|first6=Do-Hyeon|last7=Park|first7=Bae-Keun|last8=Kim|first8=Hyeon-Cheol|last9=Choi|first9=Kyoung-Seong|date=2018-03-12|title=Molecular detection of Anaplasma bovis in Holstein cattle in the Republic of Korea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5848521/|journal=Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica|volume=60|doi=10.1186/s13028-018-0370-z|issn=0044-605X|pmc=5848521|pmid=29530058}}</ref>, Japan<ref name=":0" />, Europe, Brazil, Africa, and North America<ref name=":7" />.
'''''Anaplasma bovis'''''<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dumler JS, Barbet AF, Bekker CP |title=Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila |journal=Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. |volume=51 |issue=Pt 6 |pages=2145–65 |year=2001 |pmid=11760958 |doi=10.1099/00207713-51-6-2145|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> is gram negative, obligate intracellular organism, which can be found in wild and domestic ruminants, and potentially a wide variety of other species. It is one of the last species of the Family Anaplasmaceae (formerly Ehrlichiaceae) to be formally described. It preferentially infects host monocytes,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Rymaszewska|first=A.|date=2008|title=Bacteria of the genus Anaplasma – characteristics of Anaplasma and their vectors: a review|url=http://www.vri.cz/docs/vetmed/53-11-573.pdf|journal=Veterinarni Medicina|volume=53|issue=11 |pages=573–584|doi=10.17221/1861-VETMED|doi-access=free}}</ref> and is often diagnosed via blood smears, PCR, and ELISA. ''A. bovis'' is not currently considered zoonotic, and does not frequently cause serious clinical disease in its host (although clinical disease has been noted in calves). This organism is transmitted by tick vectors, so tick bite prevention is the mainstay of ''A. bovis'' control, although clinical infections can be treated with tetracyclines. This organism has a global distribution, with infections noted in many areas, including Korea,<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Jinho|last2=Han|first2=Du-Gyeong|last3=Ryu|first3=Ji-Hyoung|last4=Chae|first4=Jeong-Byoung|last5=Chae|first5=Joon-Seok|last6=Yu|first6=Do-Hyeon|last7=Park|first7=Bae-Keun|last8=Kim|first8=Hyeon-Cheol|last9=Choi|first9=Kyoung-Seong|date=2018-03-12|title=Molecular detection of Anaplasma bovis in Holstein cattle in the Republic of Korea|journal=Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica|volume=60|issue=1|page=15|doi=10.1186/s13028-018-0370-z|issn=0044-605X|pmc=5848521|pmid=29530058 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Japan,<ref name=":0" /> Europe, Brazil, Africa, and North America.<ref name=":7" />


== History and Taxonomy ==
== History and Taxonomy ==
The clinical syndrome which is now linked to members of the genus Anaplasma have been reported since 1780, although at the time, the actual pathogenic agent was not yet known<ref name=":7" />. In the early 1900s, many other members of this genus were described and determined to be the causative agent of Anaplasmosis in a wide variety of domestic and wildlife species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuttler|first=K. L.|date=1984-01|title=ANAPLASMA INFECTIONS IN WILD AND DOMESTIC RUMINANTS: A REVIEW|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-20.1.12|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|volume=20|issue=1|pages=12–20|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-20.1.12|issn=0090-3558}}</ref>''. Anaplasma bovis'' itself, was first identified in 1936, in cattle hosts<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=ATIF|first=FARHAN AHMAD|date=2016-03-02|title=Alpha proteobacteria of genusAnaplasma(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): Epidemiology and characteristics ofAnaplasmaspecies related to veterinary and public health importance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182016000238|journal=Parasitology|volume=143|issue=6|pages=659–685|doi=10.1017/s0031182016000238|issn=0031-1820}}</ref>.
The clinical syndrome which is now linked to members of the genus Anaplasma have been reported since 1780, although at the time, the actual pathogenic agent was not yet known.<ref name=":7" /> In the early 1900s, many other members of this genus were described and determined to be the causative agent of [[Anaplasmosis]] in a wide variety of domestic and wildlife species<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuttler|first=K. L.|title=Anaplasma Infections in Wild and Domestic Ruminants: A Review|date=January 1984|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-20.1.12|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|volume=20|issue=1|pages=12–20|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-20.1.12|pmid=6716555|s2cid=29141199|issn=0090-3558}}</ref>''. Anaplasma bovis'' itself, was first identified in 1936, in cattle hosts.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=ATIF|first=FARHAN AHMAD|date=2016-03-02|title=Alpha proteobacteria of genusAnaplasma(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): Epidemiology and characteristics of Anaplasmaspecies related to veterinary and public health importance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182016000238|journal=Parasitology|volume=143|issue=6|pages=659–685|doi=10.1017/s0031182016000238|pmid=26932580|s2cid=24670345|issn=0031-1820}}</ref>


With the development of more sensitive molecular methods, there has been a drastic reorganization in the taxonomic classifications of Rickettsial organisms within the past 20 years. Generally, these organisms are grouped according to morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and clinical characteristics<ref name=":7" />. Under the previous taxonomic organization, the order contained 2 families; Family Rickettsialaceae, and Family Ehrlicheae. In the dramatic reorganization that occurred in 2001, the family Ehrlichiaceae was replaced by family Anaplasmaceae, and via molecular phylogenetic analyses, the genera within these classes were redistributed based on genetic similarities<ref name=":8" />. The current taxonomic organization the Genera Anaplasama, Ehrlichia, Wolbachia, and Neorickettsia within the Family Anaplasmaceae, and the Genera Rickettsia and Orientia within the Family Rickettsiaceae<ref name=":7" />.
With the development of more sensitive molecular methods, there has been a drastic reorganization in the taxonomic classifications of Rickettsial organisms within the past 20 years. Generally, these organisms are grouped according to morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and clinical characteristics.<ref name=":7" /> Under the previous taxonomic organization, the order contained 2 families; Family Rickettsialaceae, and Family Ehrlicheae. In the dramatic reorganization that occurred in 2001, the family Ehrlichiaceae was replaced by family Anaplasmaceae, and via molecular phylogenetic analyses, the genera within these classes were redistributed based on genetic similarities.<ref name=":8" /> The current taxonomic organization includes the Genera Anaplasama, Ehrlichia, Wolbachia, and Neorickettsia within the Family Anaplasmaceae, and the Genera Rickettsia and Orientia within the Family Rickettsiaceae.<ref name=":7" />


''Anaplasma bovis'' is currently one of 6 recognized species within the Genus Anaplasma. Other members of this genus include the species ''A. phagocytophilum'', ''A. marginale'', ''A. platys'', ''A. ovis'', and ''A. centrale''<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=YBAÑEZ|first=Adrian Patalinghug|last2=SASHIKA|first2=Mariko|last3=INOKUMA|first3=Hisashi|date=2014|title=The Phylogenetic Position of Anaplasma bovis and Inferences on the Phylogeny of the Genus Anaplasma|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1292/jvms.13-0411|journal=Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=76|issue=2|pages=307–312|doi=10.1292/jvms.13-0411|issn=0916-7250}}</ref>
''Anaplasma bovis'' is currently one of 6 recognized species within the Genus Anaplasma. Other members of this genus include the species ''A. phagocytophilum'', ''A. marginale'', ''A. platys'', ''A. ovis'', and ''A. centrale''<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=YBAÑEZ|first1=Adrian Patalinghug|last2=SASHIKA|first2=Mariko|last3=INOKUMA|first3=Hisashi|date=2014|title=The Phylogenetic Position of Anaplasma bovis and Inferences on the Phylogeny of the Genus Anaplasma|journal=Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=76|issue=2|pages=307–312|doi=10.1292/jvms.13-0411|pmid=24189581|pmc=3982816|issn=0916-7250|doi-access=free}}</ref>


== Morphological Characteristics ==
== Morphological Characteristics ==
[[File:Monocytes, a type of white blood cell (Giemsa stained).jpg|thumb|A typical (uninfected) monocyte on blood smear|166x166px]]
[[File:Monocytes, a type of white blood cell (Giemsa stained).jpg|thumb|A typical (uninfected) monocyte on blood smear|166x166px]]
''Anaplasma bovis'' is a gram negative obligate intracellular bacteria<ref name=":13">Liu, Z., Ma, M., Wang, Z., Wang, J., Peng, Y., Li, Y., Guan, G., Luo, J., & Yin, H. (2012). Molecular survey and genetic identification of Anaplasma species in goats from central and southern China. ''Applied and environmental microbiology'', ''78''(2), 464–470. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.06848-11</nowiki></ref>. The bacteria lives within the mononuclear cells of cattle, specifically monocytes. When the bacteria is suspected you can take a blood smear and observe the cells for presence of ''A. bovis'' within. Commonly observed forms on a blood smear are small spherical bodies within monocytes that can measure from 0.5 to 6 μm<ref name=":9">Prasath, N. B., Selvaraj, J., Jeyathilakan, N., Saravanan, M., Saravanan, M., Ahamad, D. B., and Sasikala, M. 2016. Occurrence of Anaplasma bovis (Ehrlichia bovis) with varying morphology in a crossbred cow in Tamilnadu, India. ''Indian J. Vet. Pathol''. 40(2): 165-167.</ref>. The morulae have acidophilic shades including pale red, dark purple, light purple and pink. A study by Prasath, N.B. et, al. showed that about 80% of monocytes contained inclusion bodies in an infected Jersey cow.
''Anaplasma bovis'' is a gram negative obligate intracellular bacteria.<ref name=":13">Liu, Z., Ma, M., Wang, Z., Wang, J., Peng, Y., Li, Y., Guan, G., Luo, J., & Yin, H. (2012). Molecular survey and genetic identification of Anaplasma species in goats from central and southern China. ''Applied and environmental microbiology'', ''78''(2), 464–470. {{doi|10.1128/AEM.06848-11}}</ref> The bacteria lives within the mononuclear cells of cattle, specifically monocytes. When the bacteria is suspected you can take a blood smear and observe the cells for presence of ''A. bovis'' within. Commonly observed forms on a blood smear are small spherical bodies within monocytes that can measure from 0.5 to 6 μm.<ref name=":9">Prasath, N. B., Selvaraj, J., Jeyathilakan, N., Saravanan, M., Saravanan, M., Ahamad, D. B., and Sasikala, M. 2016. Occurrence of Anaplasma bovis (Ehrlichia bovis) with varying morphology in a crossbred cow in Tamilnadu, India. ''Indian J. Vet. Pathol''. 40(2): 165-167.</ref> The morulae have acidophilic shades including pale red, dark purple, light purple and pink. A study by Prasath, N.B. et, al. showed that about 80% of monocytes contained inclusion bodies in an infected Jersey cow.


== Epidemiology ==
== Epidemiology ==
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=== Geographic Distribution ===
=== Geographic Distribution ===


''Anaplasma bovis'' has a large geographic distribution affecting many different countries across the world. It has been detected in Brazil, North America, Africa, Japan, China, Pakistan, Israel and Korea<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />. ''Anaplasma bovis'' has has the highest reporting in cattle, goats, and wild deer<ref name=":12" />. Cattle and Buffalo have been infected by ''A. bovis'' in Africa, South America, the Middle East and Japan<ref name=":13" />. Geographic distribution is largely influenced by season, climate and weather due to changes in tick population and distribution<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Estrada-Peña|first=A.|last2=Acedo|first2=C. Sánchez|last3=Quílez|first3=J.|last4=Del Cacho|first4=E.|date=2005-09-29|title=A retrospective study of climatic suitability for the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus)
''Anaplasma bovis'' has a large geographic distribution affecting many different countries across the world. It has been detected in Brazil, North America, Africa, Japan, China, Pakistan, Israel and Korea.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> ''Anaplasma bovis'' has the highest reporting in cattle, goats, and wild deer.<ref name=":12" /> Cattle and Buffalo have been infected by ''A. bovis'' in Africa, South America, the Middle East and Japan.<ref name=":13" /> Geographic distribution is largely influenced by season, climate and weather due to changes in tick population and distribution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Estrada-Peña|first1=A.|last2=Acedo|first2=C. Sánchez|last3=Quílez|first3=J.|last4=Del Cacho|first4=E.|date=2005-09-29|title=A retrospective study of climatic suitability for the tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus in the Americas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822x.2005.00185.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=14|issue=6|pages=565–573|doi=10.1111/j.1466-822x.2005.00185.x|bibcode=2005GloEB..14..565E |issn=1466-822X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chevillon|first1=Christine|last2=de Garine-Wichatitsky|first2=Michel|last3=Barré|first3=Nicolas|last4=Ducornez|first4=Sophie|last5=de Meeûs|first5=Thierry|date=2012-09-04|title=Understanding the genetic, demographical and/or ecological processes at play in invasions: lessons from the southern cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10493-012-9602-5|journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology|volume=59|issue=1–2|pages=203–218|doi=10.1007/s10493-012-9602-5|pmid=22945880|s2cid=4159|issn=0168-8162}}</ref> ''A. bovis'' has been found across the world in many different countries, having a significant impact on animal production and the health of wildlife species. Research is limited on the prevalence and geographic distribution of ''A. bovis'' within specific countries, so provides an area for further development within the literature.
microplus
in the Americas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822x.2005.00185.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=14|issue=6|pages=565–573|doi=10.1111/j.1466-822x.2005.00185.x|issn=1466-822X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chevillon|first=Christine|last2=de Garine-Wichatitsky|first2=Michel|last3=Barré|first3=Nicolas|last4=Ducornez|first4=Sophie|last5=de Meeûs|first5=Thierry|date=2012-09-04|title=Understanding the genetic, demographical and/or ecological processes at play in invasions: lessons from the southern cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10493-012-9602-5|journal=Experimental and Applied Acarology|volume=59|issue=1-2|pages=203–218|doi=10.1007/s10493-012-9602-5|issn=0168-8162}}</ref>. ''A. bovis'' has been found across the world in many different countries, having a significant impact on animal production and the health of wildlife species. Research is limited on the prevalence and geographic distribution of ''A. bovis'' within specific countries, so provides an area for further development within the literature.


'''North Africa'''
'''North Africa'''


DNA of ''A. bovis'' has been reported in domestic species such as cattle, sheep and goats<ref name=":6" />. The highest infection rate of ''A. bovis'' in North Africa is reported in sheep at 42.7% of the population<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ben Said|first=Mourad|last2=Belkahia|first2=Hanène|last3=Karaoud|first3=Maroua|last4=Bousrih|first4=Maha|last5=Yahiaoui|first5=Mouna|last6=Daaloul-Jedidi|first6=Monia|last7=Messadi|first7=Lilia|date=2015-09|title=First molecular survey of Anaplasma bovis in small ruminants from Tunisia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=179|issue=3-4|pages=322–326|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022|issn=0378-1135}}</ref>.
DNA of ''A. bovis'' has been reported in domestic species such as cattle, sheep and goats.<ref name=":6" /> The highest infection rate of ''A. bovis'' in North Africa is reported in sheep at 42.7% of the population.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Ben Said|first1=Mourad|last2=Belkahia|first2=Hanène|last3=Karaoud|first3=Maroua|last4=Bousrih|first4=Maha|last5=Yahiaoui|first5=Mouna|last6=Daaloul-Jedidi|first6=Monia|last7=Messadi|first7=Lilia|date=September 2015|title=First molecular survey of Anaplasma bovis in small ruminants from Tunisia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=179|issue=3–4|pages=322–326|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022|pmid=26088935|issn=0378-1135}}</ref>


'''Japan and Korea'''
'''Japan and Korea'''


''Anaplasma bovis'' has also been detected in deer from Japan and Korea. Research on the Japanese islands of Hokkaido and Honshu has shown the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' in ''Hemaphysalis longicornis'' ticks on Honshu island. Detection of ''A. bovis'' DNA was also found from blood samples of native wild deer on both islands<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kawahara|first=Makoto|last2=Rikihisa|first2=Yasuko|last3=Lin|first3=Quan|last4=Isogai|first4=Emiko|last5=Tahara|first5=Kenji|last6=Itagaki|first6=Asao|last7=Hiramitsu|first7=Yoshimichi|last8=Tajima|first8=Tomoko|date=2006-02|title=Novel Genetic Variants of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma centrale, and a Novel Ehrlichia sp. in Wild Deer and Ticks on Two Major Islands in Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.72.2.1102-1109.2006|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=72|issue=2|pages=1102–1109|doi=10.1128/aem.72.2.1102-1109.2006|issn=0099-2240}}</ref>. ''Anaplasma bovis'' has also been detected in dogs and cats in Japan<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fukui|first=Yuichi|last2=Inokuma|first2=Hisashi|date=2019|title=Subclinical Infections of <i>Anaplasma phagocytophilum</i> and <i>Anaplasma bovis </i>in Dogs from Ibaraki, Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.470|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=72|issue=3|pages=168–172|doi=10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.470|issn=1344-6304}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sasaki|first=Hiromi|last2=Ichikawa|first2=Yasuaki|last3=Sakata|first3=Yoshimi|last4=Endo|first4=Yasuyuki|last5=Nishigaki|first5=Kazuo|last6=Matsumoto|first6=Kotaro|last7=Inokuma|first7=Hisashi|date=2012-12|title=Molecular survey of Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, and Anaplasma infection of domestic cats in Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.10.028|journal=Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases|volume=3|issue=5-6|pages=308–311|doi=10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.10.028|issn=1877-959X}}</ref>.
''Anaplasma bovis'' has also been detected in deer from Japan and Korea. Research on the Japanese islands of Hokkaido and Honshu has shown the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' in ''Hemaphysalis longicornis'' ticks on Honshu island. Detection of ''A. bovis'' DNA was also found from blood samples of native wild deer on both islands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kawahara|first1=Makoto|last2=Rikihisa|first2=Yasuko|last3=Lin|first3=Quan|last4=Isogai|first4=Emiko|last5=Tahara|first5=Kenji|last6=Itagaki|first6=Asao|last7=Hiramitsu|first7=Yoshimichi|last8=Tajima|first8=Tomoko|date=February 2006|title=Novel Genetic Variants of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma centrale, and a Novel Ehrlichia sp. in Wild Deer and Ticks on Two Major Islands in Japan|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=72|issue=2|pages=1102–1109|doi=10.1128/aem.72.2.1102-1109.2006|pmid=16461655|pmc=1392898|issn=0099-2240|doi-access=free|bibcode=2006ApEnM..72.1102K }}</ref> ''Anaplasma bovis'' has also been detected in dogs and cats in Japan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fukui|first1=Yuichi|last2=Inokuma|first2=Hisashi|date=2019|title=Subclinical Infections of ''Anaplasma phagocytophilum'' and ''Anaplasma bovis ''in Dogs from Ibaraki, Japan|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=72|issue=3|pages=168–172|doi=10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.470|pmid=30700657|issn=1344-6304|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sasaki|first1=Hiromi|last2=Ichikawa|first2=Yasuaki|last3=Sakata|first3=Yoshimi|last4=Endo|first4=Yasuyuki|last5=Nishigaki|first5=Kazuo|last6=Matsumoto|first6=Kotaro|last7=Inokuma|first7=Hisashi|date=December 2012|title=Molecular survey of Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, and Anaplasma infection of domestic cats in Japan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.10.028|journal=Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases|volume=3|issue=5–6|pages=308–311|doi=10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.10.028|pmid=23168051|issn=1877-959X}}</ref>


'''China and Taiwan'''
'''China and Taiwan'''


Research has shown that ''A. bovis'' has been detected in areas of China. A study done in Chongqing, China determined that the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' within a sample population was 8.4% using blood sample collection and DNA extraction<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-08-14|title=Correction: Molecular epidemiology and risk factors of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. infection in cattle in Chongqing, China|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221359|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=8|pages=e0221359|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0221359|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>. ''A. bovis'' has also been detected in small mammals in Taiwan<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Masuzawa|first=Toshiyuki|last2=Uchishima|first2=Yoshiyuki|last3=Fukui|first3=Takashi|last4=Okamoto|first4=Yoshihiro|last5=Pan|first5=Ming-Jeng|last6=Kadosaka|first6=Teruki|last7=Takada|first7=Nobuhiro|date=2014|title=Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma bovis in Small Wild Mammals from Taichung and Kinmen Island, Taiwan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7883/yoken.67.111|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=67|issue=2|pages=111–114|doi=10.7883/yoken.67.111|issn=1344-6304}}</ref>.
Research has shown that ''A. bovis'' has been detected in areas of China. A study done in Chongqing, China determined that the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' within a sample population was 8.4% using blood sample collection and DNA extraction.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-08-14|title=Correction: Molecular epidemiology and risk factors of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. infection in cattle in Chongqing, China|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=8|pages=e0221359|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0221359|pmid=31412083|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free|author1=PLOS ONE Staff|pmc=6693847|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1421359.}}</ref> ''A. bovis'' has also been detected in small mammals in Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masuzawa|first1=Toshiyuki|last2=Uchishima|first2=Yoshiyuki|last3=Fukui|first3=Takashi|last4=Okamoto|first4=Yoshihiro|last5=Pan|first5=Ming-Jeng|last6=Kadosaka|first6=Teruki|last7=Takada|first7=Nobuhiro|date=2014|title=Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma bovis in Small Wild Mammals from Taichung and Kinmen Island, Taiwan|journal=Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=67|issue=2|pages=111–114|doi=10.7883/yoken.67.111|pmid=24647253|issn=1344-6304|doi-access=free}}</ref>


'''Canada'''
'''Canada'''


Although further research must be done to determine the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' in Canada, the bacteria has been isolated from ''D. andersoni'' type ticks in Southern Saskatchewan and Alberta.<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_3427 | chapter=Rocky Mountain Wood Tick, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles (Acari: Ixodidae) | title=Encyclopedia of Entomology | date=2008 | last1=Leppla | first1=Norman C. | last2=Drees | first2=Bastiaan M. | last3=Showler | first3=Allan T. | last4=Capinera | first4=John L. | last5=Peña | first5=Jorge E. | last6=Mannion | first6=Catharine M. | last7=William Howard | first7=F. | last8=Hoy | first8=Marjorie A. | last9=Al-Ajlan | first9=Abdulaziz M. | last10=Stocks | first10=Ian | last11=Raina | first11=Ashok K. | last12=Devorshak | first12=Christina | last13=Fishe | first13=Fred | last14=Garcia | first14=Lloyd | last15=Gerberg | first15=Eugene J. | last16=Gratz | first16=Norman G. | last17=Nation | first17=James L. | last18=Nation | first18=James L. | last19=Berlinger | first19=Menachem J. | last20=Verma | first20=K. K. | last21=Lecoq | first21=Michel | last22=Magalhães | first22=Bonifácio | last23=Cutkomp | first23=Lawrence K. | last24=Heppner | first24=John B. | last25=Brown | first25=Harley P. | last26=McCravy | first26=Kenneth W. | last27=Coons | first27=Lewis B. | last28=Rothschild | first28=Marjorie | last29=Lysyk | first29=Tim | last30=Lee | first30=Clarence M. | pages=3206–3208 | isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1 | display-authors=1 }}</ref>
Although further research must be done to determine the prevalence of ''A. bovis'' in Canada, the bacteria has been isolated from ''D. andersoni'' type ticks in Southern Saskatchewan and Alberta<ref>{{Citation|title=Rocky Mountain Wood Tick, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles (Acari: Ixodidae)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/springerreference_88575|work=SpringerReference|place=Berlin/Heidelberg|publisher=Springer-Verlag|access-date=2020-11-30}}</ref>.


'''Israel'''
'''Israel'''


Research regarding the distribution of many tick vector pathogens in Israel has shown that ''A. bovis'' can be isolated from ''R. sanguineus'' and ''R. turanicus'' ticks<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harrus|first=S.|last2=Perlman-Avrahami|first2=A.|last3=Mumcuoglu|first3=K.Y.|last4=Morick|first4=D.|last5=Eyal|first5=O.|last6=Baneth|first6=G.|date=2011-03|title=Molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma platys, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Babesia canis vogeli in ticks from Israel|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection|volume=17|issue=3|pages=459–463|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x|issn=1198-743X}}</ref>.
Research regarding the distribution of many tick vector pathogens in Israel has shown that ''A. bovis'' can be isolated from ''R. sanguineus'' and ''R. turanicus'' ticks.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Harrus|first1=S.|last2=Perlman-Avrahami|first2=A.|last3=Mumcuoglu|first3=K.Y.|last4=Morick|first4=D.|last5=Eyal|first5=O.|last6=Baneth|first6=G.|date=March 2011|title=Molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma platys, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Babesia canis vogeli in ticks from Israel|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection|volume=17|issue=3|pages=459–463|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x|pmid=20636417|issn=1198-743X|doi-access=free}}</ref>


'''Pakistan'''
'''Pakistan'''


''Anaplasma bovis'' was isolated in asymptomatic tick infested cattle by taking blood samples, detecting the presence of ''Anaplasma'' by PCR methods and then analyzing the positive samples for differences in genetics. The prevalence of ''A.bovis'' within the sample population was 7.78%<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Iqbal|first=Naveed|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Muhammad Uzair|last3=Yang|first3=Jifei|last4=Sajid|first4=Muhammad Sohail|last5=Niu|first5=Qingli|last6=Guan|first6=Guiquan|last7=Liu|first7=Zhijie|last8=Yin|first8=Hong|date=2019-09-17|title=First Molecular Evidence of Anaplasma bovis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Bovine from Central Punjab, Pakistan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8030155|journal=Pathogens|volume=8|issue=3|pages=155|doi=10.3390/pathogens8030155|issn=2076-0817}}</ref>.
''Anaplasma bovis'' was isolated in asymptomatic tick infested cattle by taking blood samples, detecting the presence of ''Anaplasma'' by PCR methods and then analyzing the positive samples for differences in genetics. The prevalence of ''A.bovis'' within the sample population was 7.78%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Iqbal|first1=Naveed|last2=Mukhtar|first2=Muhammad Uzair|last3=Yang|first3=Jifei|last4=Sajid|first4=Muhammad Sohail|last5=Niu|first5=Qingli|last6=Guan|first6=Guiquan|last7=Liu|first7=Zhijie|last8=Yin|first8=Hong|date=2019-09-17|title=First Molecular Evidence of Anaplasma bovis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Bovine from Central Punjab, Pakistan|journal=Pathogens|volume=8|issue=3|pages=155|doi=10.3390/pathogens8030155|pmid=31533303|pmc=6789598|issn=2076-0817|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Transmission and Risk Factors ===
=== Transmission and Risk Factors ===
[[File:Ixodes hexagonus (aka).jpg|thumb|An Adult Ixodes tick|190x190px]]
[[File:Ixodes hexagonus (aka).jpg|thumb|An Adult Ixodes tick|190x190px]]
''Anaplasma bovis'' is spread from host to host by tick vectors, specifically from the genera ''Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus'', and ''Amblyomma''<ref name=":7" />. The tick consumes a blood meal from an infected cattle host, taking up the bacteria. ''A. bovis'' can then be transmitted to a different animal when the tick goes on to take another blood meal from a susceptible bovine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ueti|first=Massaro W.|last2=Reagan|first2=James O.|last3=Knowles|first3=Donald P.|last4=Scoles|first4=Glen A.|last5=Shkap|first5=Varda|last6=Palmer|first6=Guy H.|date=2007-06-01|title=Identification of Midgut and Salivary Glands as Specific and Distinct Barriers to Efficient Tick-Borne Transmission of Anaplasma marginale|url=https://iai.asm.org/content/75/6/2959|journal=Infection and Immunity|language=en|volume=75|issue=6|pages=2959–2964|doi=10.1128/IAI.00284-07|issn=0019-9567|pmid=17420231}}</ref>
''Anaplasma bovis'' is spread from host to host by tick vectors, specifically from the genera ''Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus'', and ''Amblyomma''.<ref name=":7" /> The tick consumes a blood meal from an infected cattle host, taking up the bacteria. ''A. bovis'' can then be transmitted to a different animal when the tick goes on to take another blood meal from a susceptible bovine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ueti|first1=Massaro W.|last2=Reagan|first2=James O.|last3=Knowles|first3=Donald P.|last4=Scoles|first4=Glen A.|last5=Shkap|first5=Varda|last6=Palmer|first6=Guy H.|date=2007-06-01|title=Identification of Midgut and Salivary Glands as Specific and Distinct Barriers to Efficient Tick-Borne Transmission of Anaplasma marginale|journal=Infection and Immunity|language=en|volume=75|issue=6|pages=2959–2964|doi=10.1128/IAI.00284-07|issn=0019-9567|pmid=17420231|pmc=1932854|doi-access=free}}</ref>


In assessing risk factors for infection with ''Anaplasma'', it was found that breed, location, sex, and season impact prevalence rates.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Eisawi|first=Nagwa M.|last2=El Hussein|first2=Abdel Rahim M.|last3=Hassan|first3=Dina A.|last4=Musa|first4=Azza B.|last5=Hussien|first5=Mohammed O.|last6=Enan|first6=Khalid A.|last7=Bakheit|first7=Mohammed A.|date=2020-07-01|title=A molecular prevalence survey on Anaplasma infection among domestic ruminants in Khartoum State, Sudan|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-02176-7|journal=Tropical Animal Health and Production|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=1845–1852|doi=10.1007/s11250-019-02176-7|issn=1573-7438}}</ref> Exotic goat breeds were found to have higher prevalence rates when compared to indigenous breeds. In the summer, cattle and sheep have greater infections, compared to goats having greater infections in autumn.<ref name=":6" /> Further, it was found that goats in a sub-humid area had significantly greater infections, and prevalence rate varied with differences in goat and sheep flocks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ben Said|first=Mourad|last2=Belkahia|first2=Hanène|last3=Karaoud|first3=Maroua|last4=Bousrih|first4=Maha|last5=Yahiaoui|first5=Mouna|last6=Daaloul-Jedidi|first6=Monia|last7=Messadi|first7=Lilia|date=2015-09-30|title=First molecular survey of Anaplasma bovis in small ruminants from Tunisia|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378113515002187|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=179|issue=3|pages=322–326|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.022|issn=0378-1135}}</ref>
In assessing risk factors for infection with ''Anaplasma'', it was found that breed, location, sex, and season impact prevalence rates.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Eisawi|first1=Nagwa M.|last2=El Hussein|first2=Abdel Rahim M.|last3=Hassan|first3=Dina A.|last4=Musa|first4=Azza B.|last5=Hussien|first5=Mohammed O.|last6=Enan|first6=Khalid A.|last7=Bakheit|first7=Mohammed A.|date=2020-07-01|title=A molecular prevalence survey on Anaplasma infection among domestic ruminants in Khartoum State, Sudan|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-02176-7|journal=Tropical Animal Health and Production|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=1845–1852|doi=10.1007/s11250-019-02176-7|pmid=31938957|s2cid=210196034|issn=1573-7438}}</ref> Exotic goat breeds were found to have higher prevalence rates when compared to indigenous breeds. In the summer, cattle and sheep have greater infections, compared to goats having greater infections in autumn.<ref name=":6" /> Further, it was found that goats in a sub-humid area had significantly greater infections, and prevalence rate varied with differences in goat and sheep flocks.<ref name=":14" />


=== Virulence Factors ===
=== Virulence Factors ===
As an obligate intracellular pathogen, ''A. bovis'' exhibits cell and tissue tropism by preferentially infecting monocytes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zobba|first=Rosanna|last2=Anfossi|first2=Antonio G.|last3=Pinna Parpaglia|first3=Maria Luisa|last4=Dore|first4=Gian Mario|last5=Chessa|first5=Bernardo|last6=Spezzigu|first6=Antonio|last7=Rocca|first7=Stefano|last8=Visco|first8=Stefano|last9=Pittau|first9=Marco|last10=Alberti|first10=Alberto|date=January 2014|title=Molecular Investigation and Phylogeny of Anaplasma spp. in Mediterranean Ruminants Reveal the Presence of Neutrophil-Tropic Strains Closely Related to A. platys|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3911010/|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=80|issue=1|pages=271–280|doi=10.1128/AEM.03129-13|issn=0099-2240|pmc=3911010|pmid=24162569}}</ref> However, more specific virulence factors have not been identified,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2011-03-01|title=Molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma platys, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Babesia canis vogeli in ticks from Israel|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1198743X14638854|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=459–463|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x|issn=1198-743X}}</ref> and presentation of ''A. bovis'' in monocytes can vary.<ref name=":9" />
As an obligate intracellular pathogen, ''A. bovis'' exhibits cell and tissue tropism by preferentially infecting monocytes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zobba|first1=Rosanna|last2=Anfossi|first2=Antonio G.|last3=Pinna Parpaglia|first3=Maria Luisa|last4=Dore|first4=Gian Mario|last5=Chessa|first5=Bernardo|last6=Spezzigu|first6=Antonio|last7=Rocca|first7=Stefano|last8=Visco|first8=Stefano|last9=Pittau|first9=Marco|last10=Alberti|first10=Alberto|date=January 2014|title=Molecular Investigation and Phylogeny of Anaplasma spp. in Mediterranean Ruminants Reveal the Presence of Neutrophil-Tropic Strains Closely Related to A. platys|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=80|issue=1|pages=271–280|doi=10.1128/AEM.03129-13|issn=0099-2240|pmc=3911010|pmid=24162569|bibcode=2014ApEnM..80..271Z }}</ref> However, more specific virulence factors have not been identified,<ref name=":15" /> and presentation of ''A. bovis'' in monocytes can vary.<ref name=":9" />


== Clinical Significance ==
== Clinical Significance ==
Line 70: Line 61:
=== Cattle ===
=== Cattle ===
[[File:New born Frisian red white calf.jpg|thumb|Domestic cattle|267x267px]]
[[File:New born Frisian red white calf.jpg|thumb|Domestic cattle|267x267px]]
Infection with ''Anaplasma bovis'' causes a disease known as monocytic anaplasmosis in cattle.<ref name=":7" /> Infection is characterized by invasion of the organism into white blood cells called monocytes.<ref name=":7" /> Infection with ''A. bovis'' in cattle is considered to be asymptomatic in most cases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Goethert|first=H. K.|last2=Telford|first2=S. R.|date=2003-08-01|title=Enzootic Transmission of Anaplasma bovis in Nantucket Cottontail Rabbits|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jcm.41.8.3744-3747.2003|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=41|issue=8|pages=3744–3747|doi=10.1128/jcm.41.8.3744-3747.2003|issn=0095-1137}}</ref> The OIE reports that ''A. bovis'' does not cause disease, however case reports of clinical illness do exist.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=STEAR|first=M. J.|date=2005-02-22|title=OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Mammals, Birds and Bees) 5th Edn. Volumes 1 & 2. World Organization for Animal Health 2004. ISBN 92 9044 622 6. €140.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182005007699|journal=Parasitology|volume=130|issue=6|pages=727–727|doi=10.1017/s0031182005007699|issn=0031-1820}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Priyanka|first=Mahadappa|last2=Dhanalakshmi|first2=H.|last3=Rakesh|first3=R. L.|last4=Thimmareddy|first4=P. M.|last5=Narayana Bhat|first5=M.|date=2016-12-09|title=Monocytic anaplasmosis in a cow: a case report|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12639-016-0867-1|journal=Journal of Parasitic Diseases|volume=41|issue=3|pages=687–688|doi=10.1007/s12639-016-0867-1|issn=0971-7196}}</ref> Clinical disease is most likely to be detected in calves.<ref name=":7" /> Clinically apparent infection manifests as a febrile illness with enlarged prescapular lymph nodes, mucous discharge, and pale mucous membranes. Anaplasmosis is also known to be a production limiting disease resulting in decreased milk production and weight loss.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Anaplasmosis - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/anaplasmosis|access-date=2020-10-26|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Other species of ''Anaplasma,'' most commonly ''A. marginale'', are well documented to cause disease in cattle.<ref name=":3" />
Infection with ''Anaplasma bovis'' causes a disease known as monocytic anaplasmosis in cattle.<ref name=":7" /> Infection is characterized by invasion of the organism into white blood cells called monocytes.<ref name=":7" /> Infection with ''A. bovis'' in cattle is considered to be asymptomatic in most cases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Goethert|first1=H. K.|last2=Telford|first2=S. R.|date=2003-08-01|title=Enzootic Transmission of Anaplasma bovis in Nantucket Cottontail Rabbits|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=41|issue=8|pages=3744–3747|doi=10.1128/jcm.41.8.3744-3747.2003|pmid=12904385|pmc=179860|issn=0095-1137|doi-access=free}}</ref> The OIE reports that ''A. bovis'' does not cause disease, however case reports of clinical illness do exist.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=STEAR|first=M. J.|date=2005-02-22|title=OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Mammals, Birds and Bees) 5th Edn. Volumes 1 & 2. World Organization for Animal Health 2004. ISBN 92 9044 622 6. €140.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182005007699|journal=Parasitology|volume=130|issue=6|pages=727|doi=10.1017/s0031182005007699|s2cid=84187629|issn=0031-1820}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Priyanka|first1=Mahadappa|last2=Dhanalakshmi|first2=H.|last3=Rakesh|first3=R. L.|last4=Thimmareddy|first4=P. M.|last5=Narayana Bhat|first5=M.|date=2016-12-09|title=Monocytic anaplasmosis in a cow: a case report|url= |journal=Journal of Parasitic Diseases|volume=41|issue=3|pages=687–688|doi=10.1007/s12639-016-0867-1|pmid=28848260|issn=0971-7196|pmc=5555913}}</ref> Clinical disease is most likely to be detected in calves.<ref name=":7" /> Clinically apparent infection manifests as a febrile illness with enlarged prescapular lymph nodes, mucous discharge, and pale mucous membranes. Anaplasmosis is also known to be a production limiting disease resulting in decreased milk production and weight loss.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Anaplasmosis - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/anaplasmosis|access-date=2020-10-26|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Other species of ''Anaplasma,'' most commonly ''A. marginale'', are well documented to cause disease in cattle.<ref name=":3" />


=== Other species ===
=== Other species ===
''Anaplasma'' species typically infect ruminants.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Anaplasmosis - Circulatory System|url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/circulatory-system/blood-parasites/anaplasmosis|access-date=2020-11-04|website=Merck Veterinary Manual|language=en-US}}</ref> ''A. bovis'' may also infect various types of deer, buffalo, goats, cottontail rabbits, racoons, and dogs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Seo|first=Min-Goo|last2=Kwon|first2=Oh-Deog|last3=Kwak|first3=Dongmi|date=2019-04-18|title=Anaplasma bovis infection in a horse: First clinical report and molecular analysis|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=233|pages=47–51|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024|issn=0378-1135|via=}}</ref> There is a case report in the literature of infection with ''A. bovis'' in a horse.<ref name=":2" /> The horse presented with anorexia, low body condition, lethargy, and was febrile. ''A. bovis'' is not known to be transmissible to people and as such does not have zoonotic potential.<ref name=":7" />
''Anaplasma'' species typically infect ruminants.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Anaplasmosis - Circulatory System|url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/circulatory-system/blood-parasites/anaplasmosis|access-date=2020-11-04|website=Merck Veterinary Manual|language=en-US}}</ref> ''A. bovis'' may also infect various types of deer, buffalo, goats, cottontail rabbits, racoons, and dogs.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Seo|first1=Min-Goo|last2=Kwon|first2=Oh-Deog|last3=Kwak|first3=Dongmi|date=2019-04-18|title=Anaplasma bovis infection in a horse: First clinical report and molecular analysis|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=233|pages=47–51|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024|pmid=31176411|s2cid=145860037 |issn=0378-1135}}</ref> There is a case report in the literature of infection with ''A. bovis'' in a horse.<ref name=":2" /> The horse presented with anorexia, low body condition, lethargy, and was febrile. ''A. bovis'' is not known to be transmissible to people and as such does not have zoonotic potential.<ref name=":7" />


DNA fragments of A. bovis have also been reported to be found in deer, raccoons, dogs, domestic cats, Hokkaido brown bear, and wildcats in Japan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Ybañez|first=Adrian Patalinghug|last2=Inokuma|first2=Hisashi|date=November 2016|title=Anaplasma species of veterinary importance in Japan|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5146296/|journal=Veterinary World|volume=9|issue=11|pages=1190–1196|doi=10.14202/vetworld.2016.1190-1196|issn=0972-8988|pmc=5146296|pmid=27956767}}</ref>
DNA fragments of A. bovis have also been reported to be found in deer, raccoons, dogs, domestic cats, Hokkaido brown bear, and wildcats in Japan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ybañez|first1=Adrian Patalinghug|last2=Inokuma|first2=Hisashi|date=November 2016|title=Anaplasma species of veterinary importance in Japan|journal=Veterinary World|volume=9|issue=11|pages=1190–1196|doi=10.14202/vetworld.2016.1190-1196|issn=0972-8988|pmc=5146296|pmid=27956767}}</ref>


== Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment ==
== Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment ==

Latest revision as of 07:50, 14 June 2024

Anaplasma bovis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Alphaproteobacteria
Order: Rickettsiales
Family: Ehrlichiaceae
Genus: Anaplasma
Species:
A. bovis
Binomial name
Anaplasma bovis
Dumler et al. 2001

Anaplasma bovis[1] is gram negative, obligate intracellular organism, which can be found in wild and domestic ruminants, and potentially a wide variety of other species. It is one of the last species of the Family Anaplasmaceae (formerly Ehrlichiaceae) to be formally described. It preferentially infects host monocytes,[2] and is often diagnosed via blood smears, PCR, and ELISA. A. bovis is not currently considered zoonotic, and does not frequently cause serious clinical disease in its host (although clinical disease has been noted in calves). This organism is transmitted by tick vectors, so tick bite prevention is the mainstay of A. bovis control, although clinical infections can be treated with tetracyclines. This organism has a global distribution, with infections noted in many areas, including Korea,[3] Japan,[4] Europe, Brazil, Africa, and North America.[2]

History and Taxonomy

[edit]

The clinical syndrome which is now linked to members of the genus Anaplasma have been reported since 1780, although at the time, the actual pathogenic agent was not yet known.[2] In the early 1900s, many other members of this genus were described and determined to be the causative agent of Anaplasmosis in a wide variety of domestic and wildlife species[5]. Anaplasma bovis itself, was first identified in 1936, in cattle hosts.[6]

With the development of more sensitive molecular methods, there has been a drastic reorganization in the taxonomic classifications of Rickettsial organisms within the past 20 years. Generally, these organisms are grouped according to morphology, ecology, epidemiology, and clinical characteristics.[2] Under the previous taxonomic organization, the order contained 2 families; Family Rickettsialaceae, and Family Ehrlicheae. In the dramatic reorganization that occurred in 2001, the family Ehrlichiaceae was replaced by family Anaplasmaceae, and via molecular phylogenetic analyses, the genera within these classes were redistributed based on genetic similarities.[1] The current taxonomic organization includes the Genera Anaplasama, Ehrlichia, Wolbachia, and Neorickettsia within the Family Anaplasmaceae, and the Genera Rickettsia and Orientia within the Family Rickettsiaceae.[2]

Anaplasma bovis is currently one of 6 recognized species within the Genus Anaplasma. Other members of this genus include the species A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. platys, A. ovis, and A. centrale[7]

Morphological Characteristics

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A typical (uninfected) monocyte on blood smear

Anaplasma bovis is a gram negative obligate intracellular bacteria.[8] The bacteria lives within the mononuclear cells of cattle, specifically monocytes. When the bacteria is suspected you can take a blood smear and observe the cells for presence of A. bovis within. Commonly observed forms on a blood smear are small spherical bodies within monocytes that can measure from 0.5 to 6 μm.[9] The morulae have acidophilic shades including pale red, dark purple, light purple and pink. A study by Prasath, N.B. et, al. showed that about 80% of monocytes contained inclusion bodies in an infected Jersey cow.

Epidemiology

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Geographic Distribution

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Anaplasma bovis has a large geographic distribution affecting many different countries across the world. It has been detected in Brazil, North America, Africa, Japan, China, Pakistan, Israel and Korea.[3][6] Anaplasma bovis has the highest reporting in cattle, goats, and wild deer.[7] Cattle and Buffalo have been infected by A. bovis in Africa, South America, the Middle East and Japan.[8] Geographic distribution is largely influenced by season, climate and weather due to changes in tick population and distribution.[10][11] A. bovis has been found across the world in many different countries, having a significant impact on animal production and the health of wildlife species. Research is limited on the prevalence and geographic distribution of A. bovis within specific countries, so provides an area for further development within the literature.

North Africa

DNA of A. bovis has been reported in domestic species such as cattle, sheep and goats.[12] The highest infection rate of A. bovis in North Africa is reported in sheep at 42.7% of the population.[13]

Japan and Korea

Anaplasma bovis has also been detected in deer from Japan and Korea. Research on the Japanese islands of Hokkaido and Honshu has shown the prevalence of A. bovis in Hemaphysalis longicornis ticks on Honshu island. Detection of A. bovis DNA was also found from blood samples of native wild deer on both islands.[14] Anaplasma bovis has also been detected in dogs and cats in Japan.[15][16]

China and Taiwan

Research has shown that A. bovis has been detected in areas of China. A study done in Chongqing, China determined that the prevalence of A. bovis within a sample population was 8.4% using blood sample collection and DNA extraction.[17] A. bovis has also been detected in small mammals in Taiwan.[18]

Canada

Although further research must be done to determine the prevalence of A. bovis in Canada, the bacteria has been isolated from D. andersoni type ticks in Southern Saskatchewan and Alberta.[19]

Israel

Research regarding the distribution of many tick vector pathogens in Israel has shown that A. bovis can be isolated from R. sanguineus and R. turanicus ticks.[20]

Pakistan

Anaplasma bovis was isolated in asymptomatic tick infested cattle by taking blood samples, detecting the presence of Anaplasma by PCR methods and then analyzing the positive samples for differences in genetics. The prevalence of A.bovis within the sample population was 7.78%.[21]

Transmission and Risk Factors

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An Adult Ixodes tick

Anaplasma bovis is spread from host to host by tick vectors, specifically from the genera Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus, and Amblyomma.[2] The tick consumes a blood meal from an infected cattle host, taking up the bacteria. A. bovis can then be transmitted to a different animal when the tick goes on to take another blood meal from a susceptible bovine.[22]

In assessing risk factors for infection with Anaplasma, it was found that breed, location, sex, and season impact prevalence rates.[12] Exotic goat breeds were found to have higher prevalence rates when compared to indigenous breeds. In the summer, cattle and sheep have greater infections, compared to goats having greater infections in autumn.[12] Further, it was found that goats in a sub-humid area had significantly greater infections, and prevalence rate varied with differences in goat and sheep flocks.[13]

Virulence Factors

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As an obligate intracellular pathogen, A. bovis exhibits cell and tissue tropism by preferentially infecting monocytes.[23] However, more specific virulence factors have not been identified,[20] and presentation of A. bovis in monocytes can vary.[9]

Clinical Significance

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Cattle

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Domestic cattle

Infection with Anaplasma bovis causes a disease known as monocytic anaplasmosis in cattle.[2] Infection is characterized by invasion of the organism into white blood cells called monocytes.[2] Infection with A. bovis in cattle is considered to be asymptomatic in most cases.[24] The OIE reports that A. bovis does not cause disease, however case reports of clinical illness do exist.[25][26] Clinical disease is most likely to be detected in calves.[2] Clinically apparent infection manifests as a febrile illness with enlarged prescapular lymph nodes, mucous discharge, and pale mucous membranes. Anaplasmosis is also known to be a production limiting disease resulting in decreased milk production and weight loss.[27] Other species of Anaplasma, most commonly A. marginale, are well documented to cause disease in cattle.[25]

Other species

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Anaplasma species typically infect ruminants.[28] A. bovis may also infect various types of deer, buffalo, goats, cottontail rabbits, racoons, and dogs.[24][29] There is a case report in the literature of infection with A. bovis in a horse.[29] The horse presented with anorexia, low body condition, lethargy, and was febrile. A. bovis is not known to be transmissible to people and as such does not have zoonotic potential.[2]

DNA fragments of A. bovis have also been reported to be found in deer, raccoons, dogs, domestic cats, Hokkaido brown bear, and wildcats in Japan.[4]

Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment

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Diagnosis of Anaplasma infections relies mainly on visual inspection of blood smears along with molecular methods such as PCR and ELISA.[25] On blood smears, bacterial inclusions within monocytes may be visible. Live vaccines against other species of Anaplasma exist, however due to the low pathogenicity of A. bovis, there is no specific vaccine for this species. Prevention of tick bites using environmental control and parasiticides helps to prevent transmission of the organism.[27] Tetracycline antibiotics are typically used to treat clinical anaplasmosis.[28]

References

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  1. ^ a b Dumler JS, Barbet AF, Bekker CP, et al. (2001). "Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and 'HGE agent' as subjective synonyms of Ehrlichia phagocytophila". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51 (Pt 6): 2145–65. doi:10.1099/00207713-51-6-2145. PMID 11760958.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Rymaszewska, A. (2008). "Bacteria of the genus Anaplasma – characteristics of Anaplasma and their vectors: a review" (PDF). Veterinarni Medicina. 53 (11): 573–584. doi:10.17221/1861-VETMED.
  3. ^ a b Park, Jinho; Han, Du-Gyeong; Ryu, Ji-Hyoung; Chae, Jeong-Byoung; Chae, Joon-Seok; Yu, Do-Hyeon; Park, Bae-Keun; Kim, Hyeon-Cheol; Choi, Kyoung-Seong (2018-03-12). "Molecular detection of Anaplasma bovis in Holstein cattle in the Republic of Korea". Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. 60 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/s13028-018-0370-z. ISSN 0044-605X. PMC 5848521. PMID 29530058.
  4. ^ a b Ybañez, Adrian Patalinghug; Inokuma, Hisashi (November 2016). "Anaplasma species of veterinary importance in Japan". Veterinary World. 9 (11): 1190–1196. doi:10.14202/vetworld.2016.1190-1196. ISSN 0972-8988. PMC 5146296. PMID 27956767.
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  15. ^ Fukui, Yuichi; Inokuma, Hisashi (2019). "Subclinical Infections of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma bovis in Dogs from Ibaraki, Japan". Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 72 (3): 168–172. doi:10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.470. ISSN 1344-6304. PMID 30700657.
  16. ^ Sasaki, Hiromi; Ichikawa, Yasuaki; Sakata, Yoshimi; Endo, Yasuyuki; Nishigaki, Kazuo; Matsumoto, Kotaro; Inokuma, Hisashi (December 2012). "Molecular survey of Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, and Anaplasma infection of domestic cats in Japan". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 3 (5–6): 308–311. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.10.028. ISSN 1877-959X. PMID 23168051.
  17. ^ PLOS ONE Staff (2019-08-14). "Correction: Molecular epidemiology and risk factors of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. infection in cattle in Chongqing, China". PLOS ONE. 14 (8): e0221359. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1421359.. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221359. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6693847. PMID 31412083.
  18. ^ Masuzawa, Toshiyuki; Uchishima, Yoshiyuki; Fukui, Takashi; Okamoto, Yoshihiro; Pan, Ming-Jeng; Kadosaka, Teruki; Takada, Nobuhiro (2014). "Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma bovis in Small Wild Mammals from Taichung and Kinmen Island, Taiwan". Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 67 (2): 111–114. doi:10.7883/yoken.67.111. ISSN 1344-6304. PMID 24647253.
  19. ^ Leppla, Norman C.; et al. (2008). "Rocky Mountain Wood Tick, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles (Acari: Ixodidae)". Encyclopedia of Entomology. pp. 3206–3208. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_3427. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1.
  20. ^ a b Harrus, S.; Perlman-Avrahami, A.; Mumcuoglu, K.Y.; Morick, D.; Eyal, O.; Baneth, G. (March 2011). "Molecular detection of Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma bovis, Anaplasma platys, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Babesia canis vogeli in ticks from Israel". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 17 (3): 459–463. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03316.x. ISSN 1198-743X. PMID 20636417.
  21. ^ Iqbal, Naveed; Mukhtar, Muhammad Uzair; Yang, Jifei; Sajid, Muhammad Sohail; Niu, Qingli; Guan, Guiquan; Liu, Zhijie; Yin, Hong (2019-09-17). "First Molecular Evidence of Anaplasma bovis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Bovine from Central Punjab, Pakistan". Pathogens. 8 (3): 155. doi:10.3390/pathogens8030155. ISSN 2076-0817. PMC 6789598. PMID 31533303.
  22. ^ Ueti, Massaro W.; Reagan, James O.; Knowles, Donald P.; Scoles, Glen A.; Shkap, Varda; Palmer, Guy H. (2007-06-01). "Identification of Midgut and Salivary Glands as Specific and Distinct Barriers to Efficient Tick-Borne Transmission of Anaplasma marginale". Infection and Immunity. 75 (6): 2959–2964. doi:10.1128/IAI.00284-07. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 1932854. PMID 17420231.
  23. ^ Zobba, Rosanna; Anfossi, Antonio G.; Pinna Parpaglia, Maria Luisa; Dore, Gian Mario; Chessa, Bernardo; Spezzigu, Antonio; Rocca, Stefano; Visco, Stefano; Pittau, Marco; Alberti, Alberto (January 2014). "Molecular Investigation and Phylogeny of Anaplasma spp. in Mediterranean Ruminants Reveal the Presence of Neutrophil-Tropic Strains Closely Related to A. platys". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 80 (1): 271–280. Bibcode:2014ApEnM..80..271Z. doi:10.1128/AEM.03129-13. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 3911010. PMID 24162569.
  24. ^ a b Goethert, H. K.; Telford, S. R. (2003-08-01). "Enzootic Transmission of Anaplasma bovis in Nantucket Cottontail Rabbits". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 41 (8): 3744–3747. doi:10.1128/jcm.41.8.3744-3747.2003. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 179860. PMID 12904385.
  25. ^ a b c STEAR, M. J. (2005-02-22). "OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (Mammals, Birds and Bees) 5th Edn. Volumes 1 & 2. World Organization for Animal Health 2004. ISBN 92 9044 622 6. €140". Parasitology. 130 (6): 727. doi:10.1017/s0031182005007699. ISSN 0031-1820. S2CID 84187629.
  26. ^ Priyanka, Mahadappa; Dhanalakshmi, H.; Rakesh, R. L.; Thimmareddy, P. M.; Narayana Bhat, M. (2016-12-09). "Monocytic anaplasmosis in a cow: a case report". Journal of Parasitic Diseases. 41 (3): 687–688. doi:10.1007/s12639-016-0867-1. ISSN 0971-7196. PMC 5555913. PMID 28848260.
  27. ^ a b "Anaplasmosis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
  28. ^ a b "Anaplasmosis - Circulatory System". Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2020-11-04.
  29. ^ a b Seo, Min-Goo; Kwon, Oh-Deog; Kwak, Dongmi (2019-04-18). "Anaplasma bovis infection in a horse: First clinical report and molecular analysis". Veterinary Microbiology. 233: 47–51. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.024. ISSN 0378-1135. PMID 31176411. S2CID 145860037.
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