Kalam

For other uses, see Kalam (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Qalam.

Ilm al-kalam or ilm al-lahut, often shortened to kalam, is the scholastic, speculative, or philosophical study of Islamic theology (aqida). It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic faith (usul al-din), proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them.

Some scholars state kalām was formed out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islam against the philosophical doubters. This picture has been questioned by scholarship that attempts to show that kalām was, in fact, a demonstrative rather than a dialectical science and was always intellectually creative. It is also important to note that the definition of kalām has changed depending on the time and context and who it was used by.

The term kalām means "speech", "word", or "utterance". There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called so; one is that one of the widest controversies in this discipline, in the second and third centuries of Hijra, has been about whether the "Word of God" (Kalām Allāh), as revealed in the Quran, is an eternal attribute of God and therefore not created, or whether it is created words.

A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimun), a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers and jurists.

Etymology

Many definitions exist for Kalam. One definition is that "kalām is the science which is concerned with firmly establishing religious beliefs by adducing proofs and with banishing doubts". Al-Farabi in his Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm defined Kalam as "a science which enables a man to procure the victory of the dogmas and actions laid down by the Legislator of the religion, and to refute all opinions contradicting them". A common synonym isʿilm al-tawḥīd meaning science of the Unity (of God).

There are several proposed reasons behind calling this discipline Ilm al-Kalam. One reason is that it gave the person well-versed in it power and strength in kalam, i.e. speech and discourse. Another proposed reason is that the name originated from the habit of its scholars of starting the discussions in their books with "al-kalamu fi kadha". Yet another reason is that people who were involved in this discipline discussed issues (and as such were involved in kalam about these issues) in which Ahl al-Hadith remained silent. Other proposed reasons include that a mihna resulted from the discussion in this discipline of whether the Quran, which is regarded as the kalam of Allah, is created (makhluq) or not.

History

As early as in the times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam, according to historian Majid Fakhry. One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews". Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions) into some internal harmony". Other factors that might have led to the necessity of the study of Islamic doctrines include the various nations that embraced Islam, and brought with them new ideas and doctrines, and the emergence of Zandaqa in the Islamic world.

In early Islam, Ahl al-Kalām essentially referred to the Muʿtazila, in addition to other smaller schools. Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam -- Ahl ar-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two.(Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.) Ahl al-Kalām agreed with Ahl al-Hadith that the example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad was authoritative, but it did not believe it to be divine revelation, a status that only the Quran had (in its view). It also rejected the authority of the hadith on the grounds that its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much. Thus, they believed, the true legacy of Muhammad was to be found elsewhere, i.e. in the sunnah, which is separate from the hadith.

Earliest oppositions of the doctrine of kalam, such as a tabi'un and Atharism scholar Amir al-Sha'bi, who denounced the use of Qiyas (analogic deduction), which used by his contemporary scholar Ibrahim al-Nakha'i who followed Ahl ar-Ra'y school and used analogies in theology. He also tried to convince other scholars that Qiyās was not a valid argument. Al-Sha'bi was recorded to have said: "Beware of Qiyās. For when you use it, you make what is halal to be haram and what is haram to be halal.".

According to his own admission, Abu Hanifa, the founder of Hanafi school; was once observed kalam and became prominent scholar of the subject. However, he was later lost his confidence about kalam after he cannot solve the issue about Talaq (Divorce in Islam). Thus Abu Hanifah decided to completely abandon kalam and instead pursue the jurisprudence study under a tabi'un scholar named Hammad ibn Abu Sulaiman. Within the span of the rest of his life, Abu Hanifa has interractions with the following generation of kalam scholars, which causing him to grew more worse opinion about kalam, as Abu Hanifa found out they often rejecting the scripts of Qur'an and Hadith whenever it contradict with logic. From then on, the Hanafi scholars started their hostilites against the kalam scholars. Abu Yusuf, one of the best pupil of Abu Hanifa, even engaged in fierce debate against Bishr ibn Ghiyath al-Marisi, prominent mutakallim and disciple of Jahm bin Safwan.

Ahl al-Hadith prevailed over the Ahl al-Kalām (and Muslims, or at least mainstream Muslims, now accept the authority of the hadith), so that most of what is known about their arguments comes from the writings of their opponents, such as Imam al-Shafi'i. One of the most notable episode of Mu'tazila conflict with the Atharist orthodoxy in early medieval period was during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun, where the long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by the scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as shifat (attribution) of God which championed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school. Ahmad was recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and qadi of caliphate, Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad regarding the said matter about the nature of Quran. The Hanbali scholars and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as bid'ah (heresy).

Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, a 9-10th century AD Shafi'ite scholar; perhaps considered as paradoxical figure among the Shafi'ite school, as he along with his followers struggle to oppose the kalam doctrine of Mu'tazilite scholars. However, since he engaged the debates against Mu'tazilite using the Tamthil (analogical deduction), Ta'til (deprivation of divine attributes) and Takwil (Esoteric interpretation) methods as exegesis of Qur'an and Hadith; al-Ash'ari was later disowned by his contemporaries among council of Shafi'ite scholars, as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, a leading Shafi'ite jurist; has recorded the consensus of Shafi'ite schools (consisted other notable shafi'ite jurists such as Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi and Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani among others) has opposed the teaching the followers of Abu Hasan, the Ash'arism scholars, due to their abandonment of scripturalist method of Qur'an and Hadith exegesis. Meanwhile, another Shafi'ite scholar Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij also release his separate verdict denouncing the Ash'arite method of Takwil and Tamthil.

According to Ibn Khaldun in his work, Muqaddimah; the later era of kalam philosophy penetration into Islamic theology was reintroduced by al-Ghazali, follower of al-Ash'ari. Later schools of Kalam like the Kullabis, Asharites and Matuiridis would develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in philosophy alongside the Quran and hadith. This was unlike the Mutazilites, whose kalam instead prioritised reason over revelation to the point where the Quran and hadith would only be accepted if it aligned with their interpretation of rationalism.

Scholars view

There are different views regarding kalam as theological discipline. According to British religion researcher Clinton Bennett, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people. However, Islam theology researcher Jeffry R. Halverson has stated that generally, the Heresiology of Islam scholastic orthodoxy has regarded the science of kalam as kind of heretical innovation and Heterodoxy opinion. The hostile opinions about kalam is quite prevalent among major Sunni Madhhab schools such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'ite, and Hanbali.

Abu Hanifah, founder of Hanafi school, was recorded to fiercely denounce kalam. He was recorded to scold a kalam scholar Amr ibn Ubayd: "May Allah curse Amr bin Ubaid, since he has paved the way for people who study the science of Kalam, even though this science is useless to them.". Abu Hanifa also said: "(Kalam) are the word of the philosophers. You must follow the hadith of the Prophet sallallaahu ‘alaihi wasallam and the method of the salaf scholars. Stay away from any muhdath(innovation of theology) , because it is a Bid'ah.".

Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim; contemporary of Abu Hanifah and his direct student, has stated that kalam was a science of stupidity, and even further saying that those who learn about kalam are most likely a zindiq (hypocrite).

Malik ibn Anas, founder of Maliki school; has recorded to express his disdain towards kalam, when a guest asking him about the essence of Qur'an, as he responded: "Perhaps you are one of the disciples of 'Amr bin 'Ubaid. May God curse 'Amr (bin 'Ubaid), he has made a bid'ah of the kalam (science), if kalam is a science, surely the companions (of the Prophet) and the tabi'un have spoken (with kalam) regarding jurisprudence and shari'a rulings. However, (it is clear) that (the science of kalam) is falsehood and points to falsehood.".

Al-Shafi‘i, founder of Shafi'i school, held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people. However, in contradictory reports had al-Shafi'i strongly opposed kalam and its scholars (mutakallimun), such as report from his student Rabi' ibn Sulayman; and also how al-Shafi'i engaged in many debates against mu'tazila scholars. Al-Shafi'i goes as far as declaring that scholars of kalam "should be beaten with palm fronds, placed on camels, then paraded around the masses as punishment for abandoning Sunnah in favor of kalam". Furthermore, Al-Nawawi, a 13th AD Shafi'i school jurist, has recorded a compilation of al-Shafi'i quotes in his work, Al-Majmu, that he strongly forbid the teaching and learning of kalam.

Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of Hanbali school; once wrote a letter to the tenth caliph of Abbasid, Al-Mutawakkil,: "...I do not intend to speak in anything about this, except what is in the Book of Allah 'Azza wa Jalla, or what is in the hadith of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, or from his companions, or from the tabi'un. Apart from that, 'kalam' is not honorable...". Furthermore, Ahmad also accusing the scholars of kalam as hypocrite, in similar manner with Abu Yusuf of Hanafi school assessment about the supporters of kalam. The later era hostile view towards kalam was apparent most notably among the later era Atharists who quite often subsumed under the Hanbali madhhab (school of thought).

Al-Lalaka'i has recorded that Ali ibn al-Madini, colleague of Ahmad ibn Hanbal; has completely reject kalam as part of Sunni Islam.

In 9th-10th century AD, majority of Shafi'ite scholars such as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi, Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani , and Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij among others has stated they opposed the practice of logical reasonings of kalam, with the exception of ambivalent stance of Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari. Meanwhile, al-Ghazali held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty.

Ibn 'Abd al-Barr, 11th AD Maliki scholar; stated that his contemporaries consensus agreed that kalam was not a part of Islam scholastic discipline and considered it as deviation. Ibn 'Abd al-Barr also claimed that opposing kalam was universal stance among the Maliki scholars of his era.

Ibn al-Jawzi, 12th AD Maliki scholar; has explained that that Ulama and Fiqh of his contemporary has considered kalam as "..useless discipline..".

Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, 11th AD Hanbali scholar and Sufi cleric; wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam where as the Shafii hadith scholar Al-Bayhaqi approved of it in the correct framework.

Ibn al-Sam'ani, 12th AD Shafi'ite scholar has explained that the reason why Ahl al-Hadith scholars agreed why kalam discouraged is due to human's reason and logic are fluctuating from time-to-time, subjective, and limited capabilities; thus its cannot be relied to understand the metaphysical aspects of Qur'an and Sunnah. Thus as-Sam'ani postulated his own conclusion that the impossibility of using kalam for theology was due to the limitation of human's logical capability and the non uniformity of humanity's collective reasons to agree in even single metaphysical matters. In the end, as-Sam'ani also ruling out that the philosophy of theology, such as kalam, was forbidden, and every metaphysical matters from Qur'an and Hadith should be approached solely by Aqidah or creed, not by subjective individual reasonings.

Al-Suyuti, the 15th century Shafi'ite scholar; also continues the ambivalence stance of Ash'arite followers regarding the kalam, just like his predecessor al-Ghazali although he claimed his contempt against kalam. This stance caused him to garner criticism from Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Amir as-San'ani, a 18th AD Imam of Yemen (1687 - 1768); who argues the methodology of al-Suyuti exegesis in theology was incorrect in accordance of the Atharism traditions which based on the opinions of the Companions of the Prophet. Furthermore, Tafsir al-Jalalayn work of al-Suyuti also criticized by 21th century Salafi scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri, as al-Suyuti implemented ta'til method on interpreting Al-Fajr Quran 89:22.

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, a 15th AD Shafi'i scholar; has stated in his work, Bulugh al-Maram, that the practice of kalam or qiyas (analogy) was already discouraged even from the era of Companions of the Prophet. Ibn Hajar claimed this by quoting a hadith from Sunan Abi Dawud, which transmitted a hadith regarding the Wudu with the authority from Ali , fourth Rashidun caliph. In said hadith, Ali has narrated "If the religion is based on logical reason, the lower part of the khuf (sandal) should be rubbed (in Wudu ablution) instead the upper part. (however) I verily once saw the Messenger of Allah, may God bless him and grant him peace, wipe the top of both his khufs.". Ibn Hajr concluded this hadith as ruling out the use of kalam.

Rashid Rida (holding a stick, seventh from the left); 19th century AD prominent rejector of Kalam

Rashid Rida, 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school; in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw the Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts.

Al-Albani, prominent figure of Salafism and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the Islamic creed due to their Ta'til methodology, which consequently divesting the Names of God in Islam. Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the al-ʿAliyy (Most highest) attribute of God.

Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD Bangladeshi Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria says about Ilmul Kalam,

The Mutaqallimin called the Aqeedah studies "Ilmul Kalam" and the philosophers called "Al-Falsafa al-Islamiyyah" or Islamic philosophy, "Al-Ilahiyat" and "Metaphysics" (supernaturalism). About the latter names, Dr. Nasser al-Aql and many others say that it is not pure to call the Islamic Aqeedah by these names. Explaining the reason, Muhammad Ibrahim Al Hamad said, “Because the source of Ilmul Kalam is human intellect, which is based on Hindu and Greek philosophy. On the other hand, the main source of Tawheed is revelation. Moreover, Ilmul Kalam includes restlessness, imbalance, ignorance and doubt. That is why the Salaf Saleheen condemned Ilmul Kalam. And Tawheed is based on knowledge, conviction and faith,….. Another reason can be said that the foundation of philosophy is based on assumptions, false beliefs, imaginary thoughts and superstitious ideas”. Imam Harawi wrote a 5-volume book called ذم الكلام وأهله and Imam Ghazali wrote a book called تهافت الفلاسفة. Besides, Imam Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, among other Muslim scholars have discussed in detail that 'Ilmul Kalam' and 'Falsafa' do not represent the correct Islamic belief.

Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of University of Sharjah and Umm al-Qura University; that kalam science inherently contradicts the Islamic creed of al-Burooj Quran 85:16 chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as omnipotent (al-Jabbār); which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only.

Major kalam schools

Sa'id Foudah, a contemporary Ash'ari scholar of kalam (Islamic systematic theology).

Sunni

• Ashʿari
• Maturidi
• Muʿtazili

Shiʿi

• Twelver (Theology of Twelvers)
• Ismāʿīlī
  • Nizari
  • Musta'li
    • Hafizi
    • Tayyibi

See also

• Istihsan al-Khawd fi 'Ilm al-Kalam
• Al-Fiqh al-Akbar
• Apologetics
• Jewish Kalam
• Kalam cosmological argument
• Logic in Islamic philosophy
• Logos (Christianity)
• Mihna
• Qadr (doctrine)
• Scholasticism
• Tawhid

Appendix

References

• Bulğen, Mehmet (December 2019). "al-Māturīdī and Atomism (İmam Mâtüridî ve Atomculuk)" (PDF). ULUM: Journal of Religious Inquiries. 2 (2). Ankara: ULUM İslami İlimler Eğitim ve Araştırma Merkezi: 223–264. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3601654. eISSN 2645-9132. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
• Caspar, Robert (1998). A Historical Introduction to Islamic Theology: Muḥammad and the Classical Period. Studi arabo-islamici del PISAI. Vol. 11. Rome: Pontifical Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies. ISBN 9788885907102. OCLC 42577199.
• Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). "The Doctrines of Sunni Theology". Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 12–31. doi:10.1057/9780230106581_2. ISBN 978-0-230-10658-1.
• Kars, Aydogan (2019). Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190942458.001.0001. ISBN 9780190942458. LCCN 2018048099. OCLC 1147875085.
• Madelung, Wilferd; Schmidtke, Sabine, eds. (2016). "Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād, Promoter of Rational Theology: Two Muʿtazilī kalām texts from the Cairo Geniza". Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād Promoter of Rational Theology. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 132. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. i–102. doi:10.1163/9789004323735_001. ISBN 978-90-04-32373-5. ISSN 0929-2403. OCLC 952470870.
• el-Omari, Racha (2016). The Theology of Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī/al-Kaʿbī (d. 319/931). Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science: Texts and Studies. Vol. 99. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789004259683_001. ISBN 978-90-04-25968-3. ISSN 0169-8729. LCCN 2014034960. OCLC 1041077026.
• Renard, John, ed. (2014). Islamic Theological Themes: A Primary Source Reader. Berkeley and Oakland: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520281899. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt6wqbpp. LCCN 2014005897.
• Rudolph, Ulrich (2015). Al-Māturīdī and the Development of Sunnī Theology in Samarqand. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 100. Translated by Adem, Rodrigo. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789004261846_001. ISBN 978-90-04-26184-6. ISSN 0929-2403. LCCN 2014034960. OCLC 900892852.
• Sabra, A. I. (January 2009). "The Simple Ontology of Kalām Atomism: An Outline". Early Science and Medicine. 14 (1-3: Evidence and Interpretation: Studies on Early Science and Medicine in Honor of John E. Murdoch). Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers: 68–78. doi:10.1163/157338209X425506. ISSN 1573-3823. JSTOR 20617778. PMID 19831225.
• al-Salimi, Abdulrahman, ed. (2021). Early Ibadi Theology: New Material on Rational Thought in Islam from the Pen of al-Fazārī (2nd/8th Century). Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 182. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/9789004459571. ISBN 978-90-04-45957-1. ISSN 0929-2403. OCLC 1256592318. S2CID 243595906.
• Thiele, Jan (December 2018). "Recent Scholarship in the Field of kalām". Studia Islamica. 113 (2). Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers: 223–243. doi:10.1163/19585705-12341378. hdl:10261/173270. ISSN 1958-5705. S2CID 159335485.

Further reading

• Brown, Daniel W. (1996). Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521570778. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
• Eissa, Mohamed. The Jurist and the Theologian: Speculative Theology in Shāfiʿī Legal Theory. Gorgias Press: Piscataway, NJ, 2017. ISBN 978-1-4632-0618-5.
• Wolfson, Harry Austryn, The Philosophy of the Kalam, Harvard University Press, 1976, 779 pages, ISBN 978-0-674-66580-4, Google Books, text at archive.org

External links

• Kalam and Islam by Sheikh Nuh Keller
• Kalam and Islam, Living Islam
• Islamic Kalām: Rational Expressions of Medieval Theological Thought, Encyclopedia of Mediterranean Humanism