Lutetium: Difference between revisions

Lutetium, ₇₁Lu
Lutetium
Pronunciation	/ljuːˈtiːʃiəm/ (lew-TEE-shee-əm)
Appearance	silvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Lu)
	174.96669±0.00005; 174.97±0.01 (abridged);
Lutetium in the periodic table
	ytterbium ← lutetium → hafnium
Atomic number (Z)	71
Group	group 3
Period	period 6
Block	d-block
Electron configuration	[Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STP	solid
Melting point	1925 K (1652 °C, 3006 °F)
Boiling point	3675 K (3402 °C, 6156 °F)
Density (at 20° C)	9.840 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)	9.3 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	ca. 22 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	414 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	26.86 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	common: +3; 0, +1,? +2?
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 1.27
Ionization energies	1st: 523.5 kJ/mol ; 2nd: 1340 kJ/mol ; 3rd: 2022.3 kJ/mol ; ;
Atomic radius	empirical: 174 pm
Covalent radius	187±8 pm
	Spectral lines of lutetium
Other properties
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (hP2)
Lattice constants	a = 350.53 pm; c = 554.93 pm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	poly: 9.9 µm/(m⋅K) (at r.t.)
Thermal conductivity	16.4 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity	poly: 582 nΩ⋅m (at r.t.)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic
Young's modulus	68.6 GPa
Shear modulus	27.2 GPa
Bulk modulus	47.6 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.261
Vickers hardness	755–1160 MPa
Brinell hardness	890–1300 MPa
CAS Number	7439-94-3
History
Naming	after Lutetia, Latin for: Paris, in the Roman era
Discovery	Carl Auer von Welsbach and Georges Urbain (1906)
First isolation	Carl Auer von Welsbach (1906)
Named by	Georges Urbain (1906)
Isotopes of lutetium v; e;
ε0.45%	176Yb
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Lutetium is a chemical element; it has symbol Lu and atomic number 71. It is a silvery white metal, which resists corrosion in dry air, but not in moist air. Lutetium is the last element in the lanthanide series, and it is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements; it can also be classified as the first element of the 6th-period transition metals.^[7]

Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James.^[8] All of these researchers found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia, which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium and oxygen. The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after, with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other; the naming honor went to Urbain, as he had published his results earlier. He chose the name lutecium for the new element, but in 1949 the spelling was changed to lutetium. In 1909, the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones; however, the name cassiopeium (or later cassiopium) for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s.^[9]

Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element, although it is significantly more common than silver in the Earth's crust. It has few specific uses. Lutetium-176 is a relatively abundant (2.5%) radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 38 billion years, used to determine the age of minerals and meteorites. Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium^[10] and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions. ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTA-TATE is used for radionuclide therapy (see Nuclear medicine) on neuroendocrine tumours. Lutetium has the highest Brinell hardness of any lanthanide, at 890–1300 MPa.^[11]

Characteristics

Physical properties

A lutetium atom has 71 electrons, arranged in the configuration [Xe] 4f¹⁴5d¹6s².^[12] Lutetium is generally encountered in the 3+ oxidation state, having lost its two outermost 6s and the single 5d-electron. The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms, due to the lanthanide contraction,^[13] and as a result lutetium has the highest density, melting point, and hardness of the lanthanides.^[14] As lutetium's 4f orbitals are highly stabilized only the 5d and 6s orbitals are involved in chemical reactions and bonding;^[15]^[16] thus it is characterized as a d-block rather than an f-block element,^[17] and on this basis some consider it not to be a lanthanide at all, but a transition metal like its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium.^[18]^[19]

Chemical properties and compounds

Lutetium's compounds almost always contain the element in the 3+ oxidation state.^[20] Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide, which is brown. The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization. The oxide, hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water.^[21]

Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions, but it burns readily at 150 °C to form lutetium oxide. The resulting compound is known to absorb water and carbon dioxide, and it may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres.^[22] Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water (slow when cold and fast when hot); lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction.^[23] Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form trihalides; except the fluoride they are soluble in water.

Lutetium dissolves readily in weak acids^[22] and dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless lutetium ions, which are coordinated by between seven and nine water molecules, the average being [Lu(H₂O)_8.2]³⁺.^[24]

2 Lu + 3 H₂SO₄ → 2 Lu³⁺ + 3 SO2−4 + 3 H₂↑

Oxidation states

Lutetium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state, like most other lanthanides. However, it can also be in the 0, +1 and +2 states as well.

Isotopes

Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes: lutetium-175 and lutetium-176. Out of these two, only the former is stable, making the element monoisotopic. The latter one, lutetium-176, decays via beta decay with a half-life of 3.78×10¹⁰ years; it makes up about 2.5% of natural lutetium.^[6] To date, 40 synthetic radioisotopes of the element have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 149 to 190;^[6]^[25] the most stable such isotopes are lutetium-174 with a half-life of 3.31 years, and lutetium-173 with a half-life of 1.37 years.^[6] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half an hour.^[6] Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium-175 decay via electron capture (to produce isotopes of ytterbium), with some alpha and positron emission; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay, producing hafnium isotopes.^[6]

The element also has 43 known nuclear isomers, with masses of 150, 151, 153–162, and 166–180 (not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer). The most stable of them are lutetium-177m, with a half-life of 160.4 days, and lutetium-174m, with a half-life of 142 days; these are longer than the half-lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes except lutetium-173, 174, and 176.^[6]

History

Lutetium, derived from the Latin Lutetia (Paris), was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James.^[26]^[27] They found it as an impurity in ytterbia, which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac to consist entirely of ytterbium.^[28] The scientists proposed different names for the elements: Urbain chose neoytterbium and lutecium,^[29] whereas Welsbach chose aldebaranium and cassiopeium (after Aldebaran and Cassiopeia).^[30] Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]

The International Commission on Atomic Weights, which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones, based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain;^[28] after Urbain's names were recognized, neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium. An obvious issue with this decision is that Urbain was on the International Commission of Atomic Weights.^[36] Until the 1950s, some German-speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach's name, cassiopeium; in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium. The reason for this was that Welsbach's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure, while Urbain's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium.^[37] This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72, which he named celtium, which was actually very pure lutetium. The later discrediting of Urbain's work on element 72 led to a reappraisal of Welsbach's work on element 71, so that the element was renamed to cassiopeium in German-speaking countries for some time.^[37] Charles James, who stayed out of the priority argument, worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.^[38] Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953.^[38]

Occurrence and production

Found with almost all other rare-earth metals but never by itself, lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements. Its principal commercial source is as a by-product from the processing of the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite (Ce,La,...)P O
₄, which has concentrations of only 0.0001% of the element,^[22] not much higher than the abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust of about 0.5 mg/kg. No lutetium-dominant minerals are currently known. ^[39] The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. The world production of lutetium (in the form of oxide) is about 10 tonnes per year.^[38] Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare. It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$10,000 per kilogram, or about one-fourth that of gold.^[40]^[41]

Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO₃. Several rare earth metals, including lutetium, are separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization. Lutetium is separated by ion exchange. In this process, rare-earth ions are adsorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of anhydrous LuCl₃ or LuF₃ by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal.^[21]

2 LuCl₃ + 3 Ca → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl₂

¹⁷⁷Lu is produced by neutron activation of ¹⁷⁶Lu or by indirectly by neutron activation of ¹⁷⁶Yb followed by beta decay. The 6.693 day half life allows transport from the production reactor to the point of use without significant loss in activity.^[42]

Applications

Small quantities of lutetium have many speciality uses.

Stable isotopes

Stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization applications.^[43]

Lutetium aluminium garnet (Al₅Lu₃O₁₂) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high refractive index immersion lithography.^[44] Additionally, a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet, which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices.^[45] Cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate is currently the preferred compound for detectors in positron emission tomography (PET).^[46]^[47] Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG) is used as a phosphor in light-emitting diode light bulbs.^[48]^[49]

Lutetium tantalate (LuTaO₄) is the densest known stable white material (density 9.81 g/cm³)^[50] and therefore is an ideal host for X-ray phosphors.^[51]^[52] The only denser white material is thorium dioxide, with density of 10 g/cm³, but the thorium it contains is radioactive.

Lutetium is also a compound of several scintillating materials, which convert X-rays to visible light. It is part of LYSO, LuAg and lutetium iodide scintillators.

Research indicates that lutetium-ion atomic clocks could provide greater accuracy than any existing atomic clock.^[53]

Unstable isotopes

The suitable half-life and decay mode made lutetium-176 used as a pure beta emitter, using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation, and in lutetium–hafnium dating to date meteorites.^[54]

The isotope ¹⁷⁷Lu emits low-energy beta particles and gamma rays and has a half-life around 7 days, positive characteristics for commercial applications, especially in therapeutic nuclear medicine.^[42] The synthetic isotope lutetium-177 bound to octreotate (a somatostatin analogue), is used experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors.^[55] Lutetium-177 is used as a radionuclide in neuroendocrine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation.^[56]^[57]

Lutetium (¹⁷⁷Lu) vipivotide tetraxetan is a therapy for prostate cancer, FDA approved in 2022.^[58]

Precautions

Like other rare-earth metals, lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity, but its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless: for example, lutetium fluoride inhalation is dangerous and the compound irritates skin.^[22] Lutetium nitrate may be dangerous as it may explode and burn once heated. Lutetium oxide powder is toxic as well if inhaled or ingested.^[22]

Similarly to the other rare-earth metals, lutetium has no known biological role, but it is found even in humans, concentrating in bones, and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys.^[38] Lutetium salts are known to occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides.^[38] Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content, so it is not known how much the average human takes in, but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year, all coming from tiny amounts absorbed by plants. Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble ones are not.^[38]

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^ Sigel, Helmut (2004). Metal complexes in tumor diagnosis and as anticancer agents. CRC Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8247-5494-5.
^ Balter, H.; Trindade, V.; Terán, M.; Gaudiano, J.; Ferrando, R.; Paolino, A.; Rodriguez, G.; Hermida, J.; De Marco, E.; Oliver, P. (2015). "177Lu-Labeled Agents for Neuroendocrine Tumor Therapy and Bone Pain Palliation in Uruguay". Current Radiopharmaceuticals. 9 (1): 85–93. doi:10.2174/1874471008666150313112620. PMID 25771367.
^ Carollo, A.; Papi, S.; Chinol, M. (2015). "Lutetium-177 Labeled Peptides: The European Institute of Oncology Experience". Current Radiopharmaceuticals. 9 (1): 19–32. doi:10.2174/1874471008666150313111633. PMID 25771368.
^ Fallah, Jaleh; Agrawal, Sundeep; Gittleman, Haley; Fiero, Mallorie H.; Subramaniam, Sriram; John, Christy; Chen, Wei; Ricks, Tiffany K.; Niu, Gang; Fotenos, Anthony; Wang, Min; Chiang, Kelly; Pierce, William F.; Suzman, Daniel L.; Tang, Shenghui; Pazdur, Richard; Amiri-Kordestani, Laleh; Ibrahim, Amna; Kluetz, Paul G. (1 May 2023). "FDA Approval Summary: Lutetium Lu 177 Vipivotide Tetraxetan for Patients with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer". Clinical Cancer Research. 29 (9): 1651–1657. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-22-2875. PMC 10159870. PMID 36469000.

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[58] Fallah, Jaleh; Agrawal, Sundeep; Gittleman, Haley; Fiero, Mallorie H.; Subramaniam, Sriram; John, Christy; Chen, Wei; Ricks, Tiffany K.; Niu, Gang; Fotenos, Anthony; Wang, Min; Chiang, Kelly; Pierce, William F.; Suzman, Daniel L.; Tang, Shenghui; Pazdur, Richard; Amiri-Kordestani, Laleh; Ibrahim, Amna; Kluetz, Paul G. (1 May 2023). "FDA Approval Summary: Lutetium Lu 177 Vipivotide Tetraxetan for Patients with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer". Clinical Cancer Research. 29 (9): 1651–1657. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-22-2875. PMC 10159870. PMID 36469000.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{infobox lutetium}}
-'''Lutetium''' is a [[chemical element]] with the [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Lu''' and [[atomic number]] 71. It is a silvery white [[metal]], which resists corrosion in dry air, but not in moist air. Lutetium is the last element in the [[lanthanide]] series, and it is traditionally counted among the [[rare earth element]]s; it can also be classified as the first element of the 6th-period [[transition metal]]s.<ref name="finally">{{cite journal|last=Scerri|first=E.|author-link=Eric Scerri|year=2012|journal=Chemistry International|volume=34|issue=4|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2012/3404/ud.html|title=Mendeleev's Periodic Table Is Finally Completed and What To Do about Group 3?|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051357/https://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2012/3404/ud.html|archive-date=5 July 2017|df=dmy-all|doi=10.1515/ci.2012.34.4.28|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+'''Lutetium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Lu''' and [[atomic number]] 71. It is a silvery white [[metal]], which resists corrosion in dry air, but not in moist air. Lutetium is the last element in the [[lanthanide]] series, and it is traditionally counted among the [[rare earth element]]s; it can also be classified as the first element of the 6th-period [[transition metal]]s.<ref name="finally">{{cite journal|last=Scerri|first=E.|author-link=Eric Scerri|year=2012|journal=Chemistry International|volume=34|issue=4|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2012/3404/ud.html|title=Mendeleev's Periodic Table Is Finally Completed and What To Do about Group 3?|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051357/https://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2012/3404/ud.html|archive-date=5 July 2017|df=dmy-all|doi=10.1515/ci.2012.34.4.28|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist [[Georges Urbain]], Austrian mineralogist [[Freiherr|Baron]] [[Carl Auer von Welsbach]], and American chemist [[Charles James (chemist)|Charles James]].<ref name=":0">{{citeweb|url=https://www.chemicool.com/elements/lutetium.html|title=Lutetium Element Facts / Chemistry}}</ref> All of these researchers found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral [[ytterbia]], which was previously thought to consist entirely of [[ytterbium]]. The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after, with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other; the naming honor went to Urbain, as he had published his results earlier. He chose the name ''lutecium'' for the new element, but in 1949 the spelling was changed to ''lutetium''. In 1909, the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones; however, the name ''cassiopeium'' (or later ''cassiopium'') for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chemistrylearner.com/lutetium.html|title=History of Lutetium}}</ref>
+Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist [[Georges Urbain]], Austrian mineralogist [[Freiherr|Baron]] [[Carl Auer von Welsbach]], and American chemist [[Charles James (chemist)|Charles James]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.chemicool.com/elements/lutetium.html|title=Lutetium Element Facts / Chemistry}}</ref> All of these researchers found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral [[ytterbia]], which was previously thought to consist entirely of [[ytterbium]] and oxygen. The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after, with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other; the naming honor went to Urbain, as he had published his results earlier. He chose the name ''lutecium'' for the new element, but in 1949 the spelling was changed to ''lutetium''. In 1909, the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones; however, the name ''cassiopeium'' (or later ''cassiopium'') for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chemistrylearner.com/lutetium.html|title=History of Lutetium|date=25 May 2018 }}</ref>
-Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element, although it is significantly more common than [[silver]] in the earth's crust. It has few specific uses. Lutetium-176 is a relatively abundant (2.5%) radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 38 billion years, used to [[Lutetium-hafnium dating|determine the age]] of minerals and [[meteorite]]s. Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element [[yttrium]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/lutetium|title=lutetium - Dictionary Definition|website=Vocabulary.com|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> and is sometimes used in metal [[alloy]]s and as a [[catalyst]] in various chemical reactions. <sup>177</sup>Lu-[[DOTA-TATE]] is used for [[radiopharmaceutical|radionuclide therapy]] (see [[Nuclear medicine]]) on neuroendocrine tumours. Lutetium has the highest [[Brinell scale|Brinell hardness]] of any lanthanide, at 890–1300 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Samsonov, G. V.|chapter=Mechanical Properties of the Elements|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-6066-7_7|isbn=978-1-4684-6066-7|chapter-url=http://ihtik.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar|title=Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements|pages=387–446|publisher=IFI-Plenum|place=New York, USA|year=1968|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123344/http://ihtik.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar|archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref>
+Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element, although it is significantly more common than [[silver]] in the Earth's crust. It has few specific uses. Lutetium-176 is a relatively abundant (2.5%) radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 38 billion years, used to [[Lutetium-hafnium dating|determine the age]] of minerals and [[meteorite]]s. Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element [[yttrium]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/lutetium|title=lutetium - Dictionary Definition|website=Vocabulary.com|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> and is sometimes used in metal [[alloy]]s and as a [[catalyst]] in various chemical reactions. [[Lutetium (177Lu) oxodotreotide|<sup>177</sup>Lu-DOTA-TATE]] is used for [[radiopharmaceutical|radionuclide therapy]] (see [[Nuclear medicine]]) on neuroendocrine tumours. Lutetium has the highest [[Brinell scale|Brinell hardness]] of any lanthanide, at 890–1300 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Samsonov, G. V.|chapter=Mechanical Properties of the Elements|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-6066-7_7|isbn=978-1-4684-6066-7|chapter-url=http://ihtik.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar|title=Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements|pages=387–446|publisher=IFI-Plenum|place=New York, USA|year=1968|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123344/http://ihtik.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar|archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref>
 <!------------<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.iupac.org/reports/provisional/abstract04/connelly_310804.html|title =IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (online draft of an updated version of the "''Red Book''" IR 3-6)| date =2004| access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref>----------------->
 ==Characteristics==
 ===Physical properties===
-A lutetium atom has 71 electrons, arranged in the [[electron configuration|configuration]] &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93;&nbsp;4f<sup>14</sup>5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Cotton">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw|page=1223}}</ref> Lutetium is generally encountered in the 3+ oxidation state, having lost its two outermost 6s and the single 5d-electron. The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms, due to the [[lanthanide contraction]],<ref>{{Cotton&Wilkinson5th|pages=776, 955}}</ref> and as a result lutetium has the highest density, melting point, and hardness of the lanthanides.<ref name="Parker">{{cite book| last=Parker | first= Sybil P.| title =Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms| edition =3rd| location = New York| publisher = McGraw-Hill| date = 1984}}</ref> As lutetium's 4f orbitals are highly stabilized only the 5d and 6s orbitals are involved in chemical reactions and bonding;<ref name=jensenlaw>{{cite web|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/081.%20Periodic%20Table.pdf|last1=Jensen|first1=William B.|author-link=William B. Jensen|title=The Periodic Law and Table|date=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110113324/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/081.%20Periodic%20Table.pdf |access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=2020-11-10 }}</ref> thus it is characterized as a d-block rather than an f-block element,<ref name="Jensen2015">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=William B. |date=2015 |title=The positions of lanthanum (actinium) and lutetium (lawrencium) in the periodic table: an update |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |volume=17 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |s2cid=98624395 |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130011116/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and on this basis some consider it not to be a lanthanide at all, but a [[transition metal]] like its lighter congeners [[scandium]] and [[yttrium]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webelements.com/ |title=WebElements |last=Winter |first=Mark |date=1993–2022 |publisher=The University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd, UK |access-date=5 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cowan |first=Robert D. |date=1981 |title=The Theory of Atomic Structure and Spectra |publisher=University of California Press |page=598 |isbn={{Format ISBN|9780520906150}}}}</ref>
+A lutetium atom has 71 electrons, arranged in the [[electron configuration|configuration]] &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93;&nbsp;4f<sup>14</sup>5d<sup>1</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Cotton">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw|page=1223}}</ref> Lutetium is generally encountered in the 3+ oxidation state, having lost its two outermost 6s and the single 5d-electron. The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms, due to the [[lanthanide contraction]],<ref>{{Cotton&Wilkinson5th|pages=776, 955}}</ref> and as a result lutetium has the highest density, melting point, and hardness of the lanthanides.<ref name="Parker">{{cite book| last=Parker | first= Sybil P.| title =Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms| edition =3rd| location = New York| publisher = McGraw-Hill| date = 1984}}</ref> As lutetium's 4f orbitals are highly stabilized only the 5d and 6s orbitals are involved in chemical reactions and bonding;<ref name=jensenlaw>{{cite web|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/081.%20Periodic%20Table.pdf|last1=Jensen|first1=William B.|author-link=William B. Jensen|title=The Periodic Law and Table|date=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110113324/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/081.%20Periodic%20Table.pdf |access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=2020-11-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Krinsky | first1=Jamin L. | last2=Minasian | first2=Stefan G. | last3=Arnold | first3=John | title=Covalent Lanthanide Chemistry Near the Limit of Weak Bonding: Observation of (CpSiMe<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>Ce−ECp* and a Comprehensive Density Functional Theory Analysis of Cp<sub>3</sub>Ln−ECp (E = Al, Ga) | journal=Inorganic Chemistry | publisher=American Chemical Society (ACS) | volume=50 | issue=1 | date=2010-12-08 | issn=0020-1669 | doi=10.1021/ic102028d | pages=345–357| pmid=21141834 }}</ref> thus it is characterized as a d-block rather than an f-block element,<ref name="Jensen2015">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=William B. |date=2015 |title=The positions of lanthanum (actinium) and lutetium (lawrencium) in the periodic table: an update |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |volume=17 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |s2cid=98624395 |access-date=28 January 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130011116/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and on this basis some consider it not to be a lanthanide at all, but a [[transition metal]] like its lighter congeners [[scandium]] and [[yttrium]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webelements.com/ |title=WebElements |last=Winter |first=Mark |date=1993–2022 |publisher=The University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd, UK |access-date=5 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cowan |first=Robert D. |date=1981 |title=The Theory of Atomic Structure and Spectra |publisher=University of California Press |page=598 |isbn=978-0-520-90615-0}}</ref>
 ===Chemical properties and compounds===
 {{category see also|Lutetium compounds}}
-Lutetium's compounds always contain the element in the 3+ oxidation state .<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/lutetium|title=Lutetium}}</ref> Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide, which is brown. The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization. The [[lutetium(III) oxide|oxide]], hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and [[oxalate]] are insoluble in water.<ref name="patnaik" />
+Lutetium's compounds almost always contain the element in the 3+ oxidation state.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/lutetium|title=Lutetium}}</ref> Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide, which is brown. The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization. The [[lutetium(III) oxide|oxide]], hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and [[oxalate]] are insoluble in water.<ref name="patnaik" />
 Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions, but it burns readily at 150&nbsp;°C to form lutetium oxide. The resulting compound is known to absorb water and [[carbon dioxide]], and it may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres.<ref name="aaaaaa">{{cite book| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyuseourear00kreb_356/page/n327 303]–304| title = The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide | url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseourear00kreb_356| url-access = limited| last= Krebs| first= Robert E.| publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group| date = 2006| isbn =978-0-313-33438-2}}</ref> Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water (slow when cold and fast when hot); lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction.<ref name="ffff">{{cite web| url =https://www.webelements.com/lutetium/chemistry.html| title =Chemical reactions of Lutetium| publisher=Webelements| access-date=2009-06-06}}</ref> Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form tri[[halides]]; except the fluoride they are soluble in water.
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 {{main|Isotopes of lutetium}}
 Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes: lutetium-175 and lutetium-176. Out of these two, only the former is stable, making the element [[monoisotopic element|monoisotopic]]. The latter one, lutetium-176, decays via [[beta decay]] with a [[half-life]] of {{val|3.78|e=10|u=years}}; it makes up about 2.5% of natural lutetium.{{NUBASE2020|ref}}
-To date, 39 [[synthetic radioisotope]]s of the element have been characterized, ranging in [[mass number]] from 149 to 189;{{NUBASE2020|ref}}<ref name=PRC108>{{cite journal |first=K. |last=Haak |first2=O. B. |last2=Tarasov |first3=P. |last3=Chowdhury |display-authors=et al. |title=Production and discovery of neutron-rich isotopes by fragmentation of <sup>198</sup>Pt |date=2023 |journal=Physical Review C |volume=108 |number=034608 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.108.034608}}</ref> the most stable such isotopes are lutetium-174 with a half-life of 3.31 years, and lutetium-173 with a half-life of 1.37 years.{{NUBASE2020|ref}} All of the remaining [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half an hour.{{NUBASE2020|ref}} Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium-175 decay via [[electron capture]] (to produce isotopes of [[ytterbium]]), with some [[alpha emission|alpha]] and [[positron emission]]; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay, producing hafnium isotopes.{{NUBASE2020|ref}}
+To date, 40 [[synthetic radioisotope]]s of the element have been characterized, ranging in [[mass number]] from 149 to 190;{{NUBASE2020|ref}}<ref name=PRL132.7>{{cite journal |first1=O. B. |last1=Tarasov |first2=A. |last2=Gade |first3=K. |last3=Fukushima |display-authors=et al. |title=Observation of New Isotopes in the Fragmentation of <sup>198</sup>Pt at FRIB |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=132 |number=72501 |date=2024 |page=072501 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.072501|pmid=38427880 |bibcode=2024PhRvL.132g2501T }}</ref> the most stable such isotopes are lutetium-174 with a half-life of 3.31 years, and lutetium-173 with a half-life of 1.37 years.{{NUBASE2020|ref}} All of the remaining [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half an hour.{{NUBASE2020|ref}} Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium-175 decay via [[electron capture]] (to produce isotopes of [[ytterbium]]), with some [[alpha emission|alpha]] and [[positron emission]]; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay, producing hafnium isotopes.{{NUBASE2020|ref}}
 The element also has 43 known [[nuclear isomer]]s, with masses of 150, 151, 153–162, and 166–180 (not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer). The most stable of them are lutetium-177m, with a half-life of 160.4 days, and lutetium-174m, with a half-life of 142 days; these are longer than the half-lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes except lutetium-173, 174, and 176.{{NUBASE2020|ref}}
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 Lutetium, derived from the Latin ''[[Lutetia]]'' ([[Paris]]), was independently [[discoveries of the chemical elements|discovered]] in 1907 by French scientist [[Georges Urbain]], Austrian mineralogist Baron [[Carl Auer von Welsbach]], and American chemist Charles James.<ref>{{cite journal|author=James, C. |year=1907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TrhMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA495 |title=A new method for the separation of the yttrium earths|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=29|issue=4|pages=495–499|doi=10.1021/ja01958a010}} In a footnote on page 498, James mentions that Carl Auer von Welsbach had announced " ... the presence of a new element Er, γ, which is undoubtedly the same as here noted, ... ." The article to which James refers is: C. Auer von Welsbach (1907) [https://books.google.com/books?id=myLzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA935 "Über die Elemente der Yttergruppe, (I. Teil)"] (On the elements of the ytterbium group (1st part)), ''Monatshefte für Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften'' (Monthly Journal for Chemistry and Related Fields of Other Sciences), '''27''' : 935-946.</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Separation of Rare Earth Elements by Charles James | work = National Historic Chemical Landmarks | publisher = American Chemical Society | url = http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/earthelements.html | access-date = 2014-02-21 }}</ref> They found it as an impurity in [[ytterbia]], which was thought by Swiss chemist [[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]] to consist entirely of [[ytterbium]].<ref name="1st">{{cite journal|title=Un nouvel élément: le lutécium, résultant du dédoublement de l'ytterbium de Marignac|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=145|date=1907|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3099v/f759.image.langEN|pages=759–762|last= Urbain|first= G.}}</ref> The scientists proposed different names for the elements: Urbain chose ''neoytterbium'' and ''lutecium'',<ref name="Fra">{{cite journal|title=Lutetium und Neoytterbium oder Cassiopeium und Aldebaranium -- Erwiderung auf den Artikel des Herrn Auer v. Welsbach.|date=1909|journal=Monatshefte für Chemie|volume=31|issue=10|doi=10.1007/BF01530262|first=G. |last=Urbain|page=1|s2cid=101825980|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1859372}}</ref> whereas Welsbach chose ''aldebaranium'' and ''cassiopeium'' (after [[Aldebaran]] and [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]).<ref name="Deu">{{cite journal|title=Die Zerlegung des Ytterbiums in seine Elemente|trans-title=Resolution of ytterbium into its elements|journal=Monatshefte für Chemie|volume=29|issue=2|date=1908|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015036977471;view=1up;seq=193|doi=10.1007/BF01558944|pages=181–225, 191|first=Carl A. von|last=Welsbach|s2cid=197766399}} On page 191, Welsbach suggested names for the two new elements: ''"Ich beantrage für das an das Thulium, beziehungsweise Erbium sich anschließende, in dem vorstehenden Teile dieser Abhandlung mit Yb II bezeichnete Element die Benennung: Aldebaranium mit dem Zeichen Ad — und für das zweite, in dieser Arbeit mit Yb I bezeichnete Element, das letzte in der Reihe der seltenen Erden, die Benennung: Cassiopeïum mit dem Zeichen Cp."'' (I request for the element that is attached to thulium or erbium and that was denoted by Yb II in the above part of this paper, the designation "Aldebaranium" with the symbol Ad — and for the element that was denoted in this work by Yb I, the last in the series of the rare earths, the designation "Cassiopeïum" with the symbol Cp.)</ref> Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author.<ref name="Weeks">{{cite book |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of the elements |date=1956 |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp |edition=6th }}</ref><ref name="XVI">{{cite journal | author = Weeks, Mary Elvira |author-link=Mary Elvira Weeks| title = The discovery of the elements: XVI. The rare earth elements | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | year = 1932 | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = 1751&ndash;1773 | doi = 10.1021/ed009p1751 | bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1751W}}</ref><ref name="Beginnings">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=James L. Marshall |last2=Marshall |first2=Virginia R. Marshall |title=Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Beginnings |journal=The Hexagon |date=2015 |pages=41–45 |url=http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/rare%20earths%20I.pdf |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Virginia">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=James L. Marshall |last2=Marshall |first2=Virginia R. Marshall |title=Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Confusing Years |journal=The Hexagon |date=2015 |pages=72–77 |url=http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/rare%20earths%20II.pdf |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Marshall">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=James L. Marshall |last2=Marshall |first2=Virginia R. Marshall |title=Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Last Member |journal=The Hexagon |date=2016 |pages=4–9 |url=https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/rare%20earths%20III_0.pdf |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref>
-The [[Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|International Commission on Atomic Weights]], which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones, based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain;<ref name="1st" /> after Urbain's names were recognized, neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium. Until the 1950s, some German-speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach's name, ''cassiopeium''; in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium. The reason for this was that Welsbach's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure, while Urbain's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium.<ref name="rare-earth-handbook">{{cite book|last1=Thyssen|first1=Pieter|last2=Binnemans|first2=Koen|editor1-last=Gschneider|editor1-first=Karl A. Jr. |editor2-last=Bünzli|editor2-first=Jean-Claude|editor3-last=Pecharsky|editor3-first=Vitalij K.|chapter=Accommodation of the Rare Earths in the Periodic Table: A Historical Analysis|title=Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths|date=2011|page=63|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-444-53590-0|oclc=690920513|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SstnPFSzb0C&pg=PA66|access-date=2013-04-25}}</ref> This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72, which he named celtium, which was actually very pure lutetium. The later discrediting of Urbain's work on element 72 led to a reappraisal of Welsbach's work on element 71, so that the element was renamed to ''cassiopeium'' in German-speaking countries for some time.<ref name="rare-earth-handbook" /> Charles James, who stayed out of the priority argument, worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.<ref name="Emsley240">{{cite book| pages=240–242| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC&pg=PA241| title =Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements|first =John|last=Emsley| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-850341-5| date=2001}}</ref> Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953.<ref name="Emsley240" />
+The [[Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|International Commission on Atomic Weights]], which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones, based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain;<ref name="1st" /> after Urbain's names were recognized, neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium. An obvious issue with this decision is that Urbain was on the International Commission of Atomic Weights.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skelton |first1=Alasdair |last2=Thornton |first2=Brett F. |date=2017 |title=Iterations of ytterbium |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nchem.2755 |journal=Nature Chemistry |volume=9 |issue= 4|pages=402 |doi=10.1038/nchem.2755 |pmid=28338694 |bibcode=2017NatCh...9..402S |access-date=31 January 2024}}</ref> Until the 1950s, some German-speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach's name, ''cassiopeium''; in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium. The reason for this was that Welsbach's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure, while Urbain's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium.<ref name="rare-earth-handbook">{{cite book|last1=Thyssen|first1=Pieter|last2=Binnemans|first2=Koen|editor1-last=Gschneider|editor1-first=Karl A. Jr. |editor2-last=Bünzli|editor2-first=Jean-Claude|editor3-last=Pecharsky|editor3-first=Vitalij K.|chapter=Accommodation of the Rare Earths in the Periodic Table: A Historical Analysis|title=Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths|date=2011|page=63|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-444-53590-0|oclc=690920513|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SstnPFSzb0C&pg=PA66|access-date=2013-04-25}}</ref> This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72, which he named celtium, which was actually very pure lutetium. The later discrediting of Urbain's work on element 72 led to a reappraisal of Welsbach's work on element 71, so that the element was renamed to ''cassiopeium'' in German-speaking countries for some time.<ref name="rare-earth-handbook" /> Charles James, who stayed out of the priority argument, worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.<ref name="Emsley240">{{cite book| pages=240–242| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC&pg=PA241| title =Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements|first =John|last=Emsley| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-850341-5| date=2001}}</ref> Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953.<ref name="Emsley240" />
 ==Occurrence and production==
 [[Image:Monazit - Mosambik, O-Afrika.jpg|thumb|Monazite]]
-Found with almost all other rare-earth metals but never by itself, lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements. Its principal commercial source is as a by-product from the processing of the rare earth [[phosphate]] mineral [[monazite]] ({{chem|[[cerium|Ce]],[[lanthanum|La]],...)[[phosphorus|P]]|[[oxygen|O]]|4}}<!----please don't touch the formula---->, which has concentrations of only 0.0001% of the element,<ref name="aaaaaa" /> not much higher than the abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust of about 0.5&nbsp;mg/kg. No lutetium-dominant minerals are currently known.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org |author=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy |date=1993–2018 |website=www.mindat.org |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. The world production of lutetium (in the form of oxide) is about 10 tonnes per year.<ref name="Emsley240" /> Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare. It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$10,000 per kilogram, or about one-fourth that of [[gold]].<ref>{{cite news| publisher = USGS| title =Rare-Earth Metals| author = Hedrick, James B. | access-date = 2009-06-06| url =http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/740798.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Industrial Minerals and Rocks |chapter=Rare Earth Elements |author=Castor, Stephen B. |author2=Hedrick, James B. |publisher=Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration |chapter-url=http://www.rareelementresources.com/i/pdf/RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7.pdf |editor=Jessica Elzea Kogel, Nikhil C. Trivedi and James M. Barker |year=2006 |pages=769–792 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007100717/http://www.rareelementresources.com/i/pdf/RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-07 }}</ref>
+Found with almost all other rare-earth metals but never by itself, lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements. Its principal commercial source is as a by-product from the processing of the rare earth [[phosphate]] mineral [[monazite]] ({{chem|[[cerium|Ce]],[[lanthanum|La]],...)[[phosphorus|P]]|[[oxygen|O]]|4}}<!----please don't touch the formula---->, which has concentrations of only 0.0001% of the element,<ref name="aaaaaa" /> not much higher than the abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust of about 0.5&nbsp;mg/kg. No lutetium-dominant minerals are currently known.  <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org |author=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy |date=1993–2018 |website=www.mindat.org |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. The world production of lutetium (in the form of oxide) is about 10 tonnes per year.<ref name="Emsley240" /> Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare. It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$10,000 per kilogram, or about one-fourth that of [[gold]].<ref>{{cite news| publisher = USGS| title =Rare-Earth Metals| author = Hedrick, James B. | access-date = 2009-06-06| url =http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/740798.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Industrial Minerals and Rocks |chapter=Rare Earth Elements |author=Castor, Stephen B. |author2=Hedrick, James B. |publisher=Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration |chapter-url=http://www.rareelementresources.com/i/pdf/RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7.pdf |editor=Jessica Elzea Kogel, Nikhil C. Trivedi and James M. Barker |year=2006 |pages=769–792 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007100717/http://www.rareelementresources.com/i/pdf/RareEarths-CastorHedrickIMAR7.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-07 }}</ref>
-Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. [[Thorium]] precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with [[ammonium oxalate]] to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in [[nitric acid]] that excludes one of the main components, [[cerium]], whose oxide is insoluble in HNO<sub>3</sub>. Several rare earth metals, including lutetium, are separated as a double salt with [[ammonium nitrate]] by crystallization. Lutetium is separated by [[ion exchange]]. In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. Lutetium metal is then obtained by [[redox|reduction]] of anhydrous Lu[[chlorine|Cl]]<sub>3</sub> or Lu[[fluorine|F]]<sub>3</sub> by either an [[alkali metal]] or [[alkaline earth metal]].<ref name="patnaik">{{cite book|last =Patnaik|first =Pradyot|date = 2003|title =Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds|publisher = McGraw-Hill|page = 510|isbn =978-0-07-049439-8|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref>
+Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. [[Thorium]] precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with [[ammonium oxalate]] to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in [[nitric acid]] that excludes one of the main components, [[cerium]], whose oxide is insoluble in HNO<sub>3</sub>. Several rare earth metals, including lutetium, are separated as a double salt with [[ammonium nitrate]] by crystallization. Lutetium is separated by [[ion exchange]]. In this process, rare-earth ions are [[adsorption| adsorbed]] onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. Lutetium metal is then obtained by [[redox|reduction]] of anhydrous Lu[[chlorine|Cl]]<sub>3</sub> or Lu[[fluorine|F]]<sub>3</sub> by either an [[alkali metal]] or [[alkaline earth metal]].<ref name="patnaik">{{cite book|last =Patnaik|first =Pradyot|date = 2003|title =Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds|publisher = McGraw-Hill|page = 510|isbn =978-0-07-049439-8|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref>
 : {{chem2|2 LuCl3 + 3 Ca → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl2}}
+<sup>177</sup>Lu is produced by [[neutron activation]] of <sup>176</sup>Lu or by indirectly by neutron activation of <sup>176</sup>Yb followed by [[beta decay]]. The 6.693 day half life allows transport from the production reactor to the point of use without significant loss in activity.<ref name=PillaiKnapp/>
 ==Applications==
+Small quantities of lutetium have many speciality uses.
-Because of production difficulty and high price, lutetium has very few commercial uses, especially since it is rarer than most of the other lanthanides but is chemically not very different. However, stable lutetium can be used as [[catalyst]]s in [[petroleum]] [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]] in [[oil refinery|refineries]] and can also be used in alkylation, [[hydrogenation]], and [[polymerization]] applications.<ref>{{RubberBible86th}}</ref> A nitrogen-doped lutetium hydride may have a role in creating room temperature [[superconductor]]s at 10 kbar.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=2023-03-08 |title=New Room-Temperature Superconductor Offers Tantalizing Possibilities |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/08/science/room-temperature-superconductor-ranga-dias.html |access-date=2023-03-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05742-0|title=Evidence of near-ambient superconductivity in a N-doped lutetium hydride|journal=Nature|issue=7951|year=2023|pages=244–250|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05742-0|author=Dasenbrock-Gammon, N. |author2=Snider, E. |author3=McBride, R. |volume=615 |pmid=36890373 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..244D |s2cid=257407449 }}</ref>
+=== Stable isotopes ===
+Stable lutetium can be used as [[catalyst]]s in [[petroleum]] [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]] in [[oil refinery|refineries]] and can also be used in alkylation, [[hydrogenation]], and [[polymerization]] applications.<ref>{{RubberBible86th}}</ref>
+[[Lutetium aluminium garnet]] ({{chem2|Al5Lu3O12}}) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high [[refractive index]] [[immersion lithography]].<ref>{{cite book| page=12| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sx39H8XR1FcC&pg=PA12| title =Advanced Processes for 193-NM Immersion Lithography| author =Wei, Yayi | author2 =Brainard, Robert L. | publisher=SPIE Press| date = 2009| isbn =978-0-8194-7557-2}}</ref> Additionally, a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a [[dopant]] to [[gadolinium gallium garnet]], which is used in [[magnetic bubble memory]] devices.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02655293| title = Three garnet compositions for bubble domain memories| journal = Journal of Electronic Materials| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 693–707| year = 1974| last1 = Nielsen | first1 = J. W.| last2 = Blank | first2 = S. L.| last3 = Smith | first3 = D. H.| last4 = Vella-Coleiro | first4 = G. P.| last5 = Hagedorn | first5 = F. B.| last6 = Barns | first6 = R. L.| last7 = Biolsi | first7 = W. A.| bibcode = 1974JEMat...3..693N| s2cid = 98828884}}</ref> Cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate is currently the preferred compound for detectors in [[positron emission tomography]] (PET).<ref>{{cite book| author = Wahl, R. L. |chapter = Instrumentation| title = Principles and Practice of Positron Emission Tomography| location = Philadelphia: Lippincott| publisher = Williams and Wilkins| date= 2002| page =51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1109/23.256710| title = Evaluation of cerium doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillation crystals for PET| journal = IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science| volume = 40| issue = 4| pages = 1045–1047| year = 1993| last1 = Daghighian | first1 = F.| last2 = Shenderov | first2 = P.| last3 = Pentlow | first3 = K. S. | last4 = Graham | first4 = M. C. | last5 = Eshaghian | first5 = B.| last6 = Melcher | first6 = C. L. | last7 = Schweitzer | first7 = J. S. | bibcode = 1993ITNS...40.1045D| s2cid = 28011497}}</ref> Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG) is used as a phosphor in light-emitting diode light bulbs.<ref>{{cite web|first=Steve|last=Bush|title=Discussing LED lighting phosphors|url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/products/led/discussing-led-lighting-phosphors-2014-03/|publisher=Electronic Weekly|date=14 March 2014|access-date=26 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = A19 LED bulbs: What's under the frosting?|journal = EE Times|issue = July 18|date = 2011|issn = 0192-1541|pages = 44–45|author = Simard-Normandin, Martine }}</ref>
+[[Lutetium tantalate]] (LuTaO<sub>4</sub>) is the densest known stable white material (density 9.81&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>)<ref name="lu1">{{Cite journal| first1 = G.| first2 = G.| first3 = L.| first4 = M. | title = Luminescence of materials based on LuTaO4| last1 = Blasse | author-link1 = George Blasse | journal = Journal of Alloys and Compounds | volume = 209 | issue = 1–2| pages = 1–2 | year = 1994 | doi = 10.1016/0925-8388(94)91069-3| last2 = Dirksen| last3 = Brixner| last4 = Crawford}}</ref> and therefore is an ideal host for X-ray phosphors.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lWlcJEDukRIC&pg=PA846| page=846|title = Phosphor handbook| author = Shionoya, Shigeo | publisher= CRC Press| date = 1998| isbn =978-0-8493-7560-6}}</ref><ref name="appl">{{cite book| page = 32| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F0Bte_XhzoAC&pg=PA32| title = Extractive metallurgy of rare earths| author = Gupta, C. K. | author2 = Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar | publisher =CRC Press| date = 2004| isbn =978-0-415-33340-5}}</ref> The only denser white material is [[thorium dioxide]], with density of 10&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, but the thorium it contains is radioactive.
+Lutetium is also a compound of several [[Scintillator|scintillating materials]], which convert X-rays to visible light. It is part of [[Lutetium–yttrium oxyorthosilicate|LYSO]], [[Lutetium aluminium garnet|LuAg]] and [[Lutetium(III) iodide|lutetium iodide]] scintillators.
+Research indicates that lutetium-ion atomic clocks could provide greater accuracy than any existing atomic clock.<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = K.J. | last1 = Arnold | first2 = R. | last2 = Kaewuam | first3 = A. | last3 = Roy | first4 = T.R. | last4 = Tan | first5 = M.D. | last5 = Barrett | title = Blackbody radiation shift assessment for a lutetium ion clock | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | page = 1650 | year=2018 | doi=10.1038/s41467-018-04079-x | pmid = 29695720 | pmc = 5917023 | bibcode = 2018NatCo...9.1650A | arxiv = 1712.00240 }}</ref>
+===Unstable isotopes===
-[[Lutetium aluminium garnet]] ({{chem2|Al5Lu3O12}}) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high [[refractive index]] [[immersion lithography]].<ref>{{cite book| page=12| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sx39H8XR1FcC&pg=PA12| title =Advanced Processes for 193-NM Immersion Lithography| author =Wei, Yayi | author2 =Brainard, Robert L. | publisher=SPIE Press| date = 2009| isbn =978-0-8194-7557-2}}</ref> Additionally, a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a [[dopant]] to [[gadolinium gallium garnet]], which is used in [[magnetic bubble memory]] devices.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02655293| title = Three garnet compositions for bubble domain memories| journal = Journal of Electronic Materials| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 693–707| year = 1974| last1 = Nielsen | first1 = J. W.| last2 = Blank | first2 = S. L.| last3 = Smith | first3 = D. H.| last4 = Vella-Coleiro | first4 = G. P.| last5 = Hagedorn | first5 = F. B.| last6 = Barns | first6 = R. L.| last7 = Biolsi | first7 = W. A.| bibcode = 1974JEMat...3..693N| s2cid = 98828884}}</ref> Cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate is currently the preferred compound for detectors in [[positron emission tomography]] (PET).<ref>{{cite book| author = Wahl, R. L. |chapter = Instrumentation| title = Principles and Practice of Positron Emission Tomography| location = Philadelphia: Lippincott| publisher = Williams and Wilkins| date= 2002| page =51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1109/23.256710| title = Evaluation of cerium doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillation crystals for PET| journal = IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science| volume = 40| issue = 4| pages = 1045–1047| year = 1993| last1 = Daghighian | first1 = F.| last2 = Shenderov | first2 = P.| last3 = Pentlow | first3 = K. S. | last4 = Graham | first4 = M. C. | last5 = Eshaghian | first5 = B.| last6 = Melcher | first6 = C. L. | last7 = Schweitzer | first7 = J. S. | bibcode = 1993ITNS...40.1045D| s2cid = 28011497| url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/6eb9620c800eadbc6d164cb40dfa2289bbaa69d8}}</ref> Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG) is used as a phosphor in light-emitting diode light bulbs.<ref>{{cite web|first=Steve|last=Bush|title=Discussing LED lighting phosphors|url=http://www.electronicsweekly.com/news/products/led/discussing-led-lighting-phosphors-2014-03/|publisher=Electronic Weekly|date=14 March 2014|access-date=26 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = A19 LED bulbs: What's under the frosting?|journal = EE Times|issue = July 18|date = 2011|issn = 0192-1541|pages = 44–45|author = Simard-Normandin, Martine }}</ref>
+The suitable half-life and decay mode made lutetium-176 used as a pure beta emitter, using lutetium which has been exposed to [[neutron activation]], and in [[lutetium–hafnium dating]] to date [[meteorite]]s.<ref>{{cite book| page=51| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uYmP0K5PXEC&pg=PA52| title =Lectures in Astrobiology| author = Muriel Gargaud| author2 = Hervé Martin| author3 = Philippe Claeys|publisher= Springer|date = 2007| isbn =978-3-540-33692-1}}</ref>
+The isotope <sup>177</sup>Lu emits low-energy beta particles and gamma rays and has a half-life around 7 days, positive characteristics for commercial applications, especially in therapeutic nuclear medicine.<ref name=PillaiKnapp>MR Pillai, Ambikalmajan, and Furn F Russ Knapp. "Evolving important role of lutetium-177 for therapeutic nuclear medicine." Current radiopharmaceuticals 8.2 (2015): 78-85.</ref>
-Aside from stable lutetium, its radioactive isotopes have several specific uses. The suitable half-life and decay mode made lutetium-176 used as a pure beta emitter, using lutetium which has been exposed to [[neutron activation]], and in [[lutetium–hafnium dating]] to date [[meteorite]]s.<ref>{{cite book| page=51| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uYmP0K5PXEC&pg=PA52| title =Lectures in Astrobiology| author = Muriel Gargaud| author2 = Hervé Martin| author3 = Philippe Claeys|publisher= Springer|date = 2007| isbn =978-3-540-33692-1}}</ref> The synthetic isotope [[Lutetium (177Lu) DOTA-octreotate|lutetium-177 bound to octreotate]] (a [[somatostatin]] analogue), is used experimentally in targeted [[radionuclide]] therapy for [[neuroendocrine tumors]].<ref>{{cite book| page=98| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtRdbUNbPn8C&pg=PA98| title =Metal complexes in tumor diagnosis and as anticancer agents| author=Sigel, Helmut | publisher=CRC Press| date =2004| isbn =978-0-8247-5494-5}}</ref> Indeed, lutetium-177 is seeing increased usage as a radionuclide in neuroendocrine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation.<ref>{{Cite journal
+The synthetic isotope [[Lutetium (177Lu) DOTA-octreotate|lutetium-177 bound to octreotate]] (a [[somatostatin]] analogue), is used experimentally in targeted [[radionuclide]] therapy for [[neuroendocrine tumors]].<ref>{{cite book| page=98| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtRdbUNbPn8C&pg=PA98| title =Metal complexes in tumor diagnosis and as anticancer agents| author=Sigel, Helmut | publisher=CRC Press| date =2004| isbn =978-0-8247-5494-5}}</ref> Lutetium-177 is used as a radionuclide in neuroendocrine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation.<ref>{{Cite journal
  | pmid = 25771367
 | year = 2015
@@ Line 93: / Line 108: @@
 | first3 = M.
 | doi = 10.2174/1874471008666150313111633
+}}</ref>
-}}</ref> Research indicates that lutetium-ion atomic clocks could provide greater accuracy than any existing atomic clock.<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = K.J. | last1 = Arnold | first2 = R. | last2 = Kaewuam | first3 = A. | last3 = Roy | first4 = T.R. | last4 = Tan | first5 = M.D. | last5 = Barrett | title = Blackbody radiation shift assessment for a lutetium ion clock | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | page = 1650 | year=2018 | doi=10.1038/s41467-018-04079-x | pmid = 29695720 | pmc = 5917023 | bibcode = 2018NatCo...9.1650A | arxiv = 1712.00240 }}</ref>
-[[Lutetium tantalate]] (LuTaO<sub>4</sub>) is the densest known stable white material (density 9.81&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>)<ref name="lu1">{{Cite journal| first1 = G.| first2 = G.| first3 = L.| first4 = M. | title = Luminescence of materials based on LuTaO4| last1 = Blasse | author-link1 = George Blasse | journal = Journal of Alloys and Compounds | volume = 209 | issue = 1–2| pages = 1–2 | year = 1994 | doi = 10.1016/0925-8388(94)91069-3| last2 = Dirksen| last3 = Brixner| last4 = Crawford}}</ref> and therefore is an ideal host for X-ray phosphors.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lWlcJEDukRIC&pg=PA846| page=846|title = Phosphor handbook| author = Shionoya, Shigeo | publisher= CRC Press| date = 1998| isbn =978-0-8493-7560-6}}</ref><ref name="appl">{{cite book| page = 32| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F0Bte_XhzoAC&pg=PA32| title = Extractive metallurgy of rare earths| author = Gupta, C. K. | author2 = Krishnamurthy, Nagaiyar | publisher =CRC Press| date = 2004| isbn =978-0-415-33340-5}}</ref> The only denser white material is [[thorium dioxide]], with density of 10&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, but the thorium it contains is radioactive.
+[[Lutetium (177Lu) vipivotide tetraxetan|Lutetium (<sup>177</sup>Lu) vipivotide tetraxetan]] is a therapy for [[prostate cancer]], FDA approved in 2022.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fallah |first1=Jaleh |last2=Agrawal |first2=Sundeep |last3=Gittleman |first3=Haley |last4=Fiero |first4=Mallorie H. |last5=Subramaniam |first5=Sriram |last6=John |first6=Christy |last7=Chen |first7=Wei |last8=Ricks |first8=Tiffany K. |last9=Niu |first9=Gang |last10=Fotenos |first10=Anthony |last11=Wang |first11=Min |last12=Chiang |first12=Kelly |last13=Pierce |first13=William F. |last14=Suzman |first14=Daniel L. |last15=Tang |first15=Shenghui |last16=Pazdur |first16=Richard |last17=Amiri-Kordestani |first17=Laleh |last18=Ibrahim |first18=Amna |last19=Kluetz |first19=Paul G. |title=FDA Approval Summary: Lutetium Lu 177 Vipivotide Tetraxetan for Patients with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer |journal=Clinical Cancer Research |date=1 May 2023 |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=1651–1657 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-22-2875|pmid=36469000 |pmc=10159870 }}</ref>
-Lutetium is also a compound of several [[Scintillator|scintillating materials]], those which converts X-rays to visible light. It is part of [[Lutetium–yttrium oxyorthosilicate|LYSO]], [[Lutetium aluminium garnet|LuAg]] and [[Lutetium(III) iodide|Lutetium iodide]] scintilators.
 ==Precautions==