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{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Short description|Turkic Beylik in Anatolia between 1300-1429}}
{{Short description|Turkic Beylik in Anatolia between 1300-1429}}
{{About||the place in Azerbaijan|Germiyan, Azerbaijan}}
{{About||the place in Azerbaijan|Germiyan, Azerbaijan}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Germiyan
|conventional_long_name = Germiyan
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|common_languages = [[Old Anatolian Turkish]]
|common_languages = [[Old Anatolian Turkish]]
|religion = Muslim
|religion = Muslim
|leader1 = [[Yakup I of Germiyan]]
|leader1 = [[Yaqub I of Germiyan|Yakub I]]
|leader2 = [[Yakup II of Germiyan]]
|leader2 = [[Mehmed of Germiyan|Mehmed]]
|leader3 = [[Suleiman of Germiyan|Suleiman]]
|year_leader1 = 1300–1327
|leader4 = [[Yakub II]]
|year_leader2 = 1402–1429
|year_leader1 = 1300–1340
|year_leader2 = 1340–1361
|year_leader3 = 1361–1387
|year_leader4 = 1387–1429
|title_leader = Bey
|title_leader = Bey
}}
}}
{{History of Turkey}}


The '''Germiyanids''' ({{lang-tr|Germiyanoğulları Beyliği}} or ''Germiyan Beyliği'') was a prominent [[Anatolian beyliks]] established by the [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz Turkish tribes]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |title=The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire : essays on economy and society |date=1993 |publisher=Indiana University Turkish Studies |location=Bloomington |isbn=9781878318046 |page=97}}</ref> (probably [[Afshar people|Afshar]] tribe)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leiser |first1=Gary |last2=Koprulu |first2=Fuat |title=Origins of the Ottoman Empire |date=1992 |isbn=9781438410432 |page=37}}</ref> after the decline of [[Sultanate of Rûm]]. However, while the [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]] was always mentioned as [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] or [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz Turkish]], the population consisted of Turks and [[Yazidis|Yezidi]] [[Kurds]], brought by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]] from the east of [[Malatya]] to western Anatolia as militia guards against the threatening Turkish tribesmen.<ref>Ducas, Harry J. Magoulias, Ducas, 1975 , ''Decline and fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks'', p. 265, Wayne State University Press, University of Virginia {{ISBN|0-8143-1540-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8143-1540-8}}, The Germiyan were probably Kurdish and Turkish half-breeds who came from east of Malatya.</ref><ref>Peter Malcolm Holt, 1986, ''The Age of the Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517'', p. 176, Longman, University of Michigan, {{ISBN|0-582-49303-X}}, 9780582493032 The second of the eastern principalities, Germiyan, developed from a group, probably of mixed Kurdish and Turkish origin</ref><ref>[[Marios Philippides]], ''Biblioteca apostolica vaticana - 1990, Byzantium, Europe, and the early Ottoman sultans, 1373-1513: an anonymous Greek chronicle of the seventeenth century'', p. 6, A.D. Caratzas, University of Michigan, {{ISBN|0-89241-430-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-89241-430-7}}, Near Byzantine borders in Phrygia, the emirate of Germiyan was formed by a mixed population of Turks and Kurds, who had come from east of Malatya</ref><ref name=":0">Carl F. Petry, 1998, ''The Cambridge History of Egypt'', Vol. 1, p. 527, Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-63313-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-63313-0}}, An Anatolian Turco-Kurdish dynasty, with its capital at Kutahya</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bruinessen|first=Martin van|url=https://books.google.de/books?redir_esc=y&id=PGptAAAAMAAJ&dq=agha+shaikh+and+state&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Germiyan|title=Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan|date=1992|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-85649-018-4|pages=161|language=en}}</ref>
The '''Germiyanids''' ([[Old Anatolian Turkish]]: {{lang|tr-Arab-TR|كرميان}}; {{langx|tr|Germiyanoğulları Beyliği}} or ''Germiyan Beyliği'') were a prominent [[Anatolian beylik]] established by the [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz Turkish tribes]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |title=The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire : essays on economy and society |date=1993 |publisher=Indiana University Turkish Studies |location=Bloomington |isbn=9781878318046 |page=97}}</ref> (probably the [[Afshar people|Afshar]] tribe)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leiser |first1=Gary |last2=Koprulu |first2=Fuat |title=Origins of the Ottoman Empire |date=1992 |isbn=9781438410432 |page=37}}</ref> after the decline of the [[Sultanate of Rûm]]. While the [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]] was always mentioned as being ethnically [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] or Oghuz Turkish, the population consisted of Turks and [[Yazidis|Yezidi]] [[Kurds]], brought by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]] from the east of [[Malatya]] to western Anatolia as militia guards against the threatening Turkish tribesmen.<ref>Ducas, Harry J. Magoulias, Ducas, 1975 , ''Decline and fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks'', p. 265, Wayne State University Press, University of Virginia {{ISBN|0-8143-1540-2}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8143-1540-8}}, The Germiyan were probably Kurdish and Turkish half-breeds who came from east of Malatya.</ref><ref>Peter Malcolm Holt, 1986, ''The Age of the Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517'', p. 176, Longman, University of Michigan, {{ISBN|0-582-49303-X}}, 9780582493032 The second of the eastern principalities, Germiyan, developed from a group, probably of mixed Kurdish and Turkish origin</ref><ref>[[Marios Philippides]], ''Biblioteca apostolica vaticana - 1990, Byzantium, Europe, and the early Ottoman sultans, 1373-1513: an anonymous Greek chronicle of the seventeenth century'', p. 6, A.D. Caratzas, University of Michigan, {{ISBN|0-89241-430-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-89241-430-7}}, Near Byzantine borders in Phrygia, the emirate of Germiyan was formed by a mixed population of Turks and Kurds, who had come from east of Malatya</ref><ref name=":0">Carl F. Petry, 1998, ''The Cambridge History of Egypt'', Vol. 1, p. 527, Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-63313-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-63313-0}}, An Anatolian Turco-Kurdish dynasty, with its capital at Kutahya</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bruinessen|first=Martin van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGptAAAAMAAJ&q=Germiyan|title=Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan|date=1992|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-85649-018-4|pages=161|language=en}}</ref>


==Origins==
==Origins==
According to Agoston and Masters Germiyanoğulları were [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkomans]] who had immigrated to the west because of [[Mongol]] pressure in the second half of the 13th century.<ref>Gabor Agoston-Bruce Masters, ''Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire'', p. 41 {{ISBN|978-0-8160-6259-1}}</ref> The Germiyanids were of [[Afshar (tribe)|Afshar]] branch of [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref name=koprulu>[[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü]], (1937), ''The Origins of the Ottoman Empire'', p. 37</ref> Germiyanids likely came from [[Kerman]] or [[Fars Province]], perhaps headed west with [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmshahs]]. After the death of [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]], they remailed in [[Malatya]] area for a while, then moved to [[Kütahya]], where they established the [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]].<ref name=koprulu />
According to the historians Agoston and Masters, the Germiyanoğulları were [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkomans]] who had immigrated to the west because of [[Mongol]] pressure in the second half of the 13th century.<ref>Gabor Agoston-Bruce Masters, ''Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire'', p. 41 {{ISBN|978-0-8160-6259-1}}</ref> The Germiyanids were of an [[Afshar (tribe)|Afshar]] branch of the [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref name=koprulu>[[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü]], (1937), ''The Origins of the Ottoman Empire'', p. 37</ref> The Germiyanids likely came from [[Kerman]] or [[Fars Province]], and perhaps headed west with the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmshahs]]. After the death of [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]], they remained in the [[Malatya]] area for a while, then moved to [[Kütahya]], where they established the [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]].<ref name=koprulu />


According to Middle East historian Petry, the Germiyans were a Turco-Kurdish dynasty.<ref name=":0" /> However, cultural historian Cemal Kafadar states the ethnic make up of the dynasty is too complex for a simple straightforward interpretation.{{sfn|Kafadar|2007|p=22}}
According to the historian Petry, the Germiyanids were a Turco-Kurdish dynasty.<ref name=":0" /> However, cultural historian Cemal Kafadar states the ethnic makeup of the dynasty is too complex for a simple straightforward interpretation.{{sfn|Kafadar|2007|p=22}}


==History==
==History==
===Background===
For a brief period in the second half of the 14th century, Germiyan Dynasty was second only to [[Karamanid Dynasty]] in its rising power. But they were later taken over by the neighboring [[Osmanoğlu family|Osmanoğlu]] dynasty, who were to found the [[Ottoman Empire]] later.
During the 11th century, much of [[West Asia]] was subject to [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] rule. A branch of the [[Seljuk dynasty]] formed the [[Sultanate of Rum]], an Islamic state in [[Anatolia]], which saw its height from the late 12th century to 1237.{{sfn|Peacock|2000}} The Germiyan first appeared in 1239 under [[Kaykhusraw II]]'s rule of the Sultanate of Rum. Muzaffar al-Din, Yakub I's paternal grandfather,{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=54}} was tasked with subduing [[Baba Ishak]]'s rebellion in the area around [[Malatya]].{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} Kaykhusraw II faced a major defeat by the [[Mongol Empire]] at the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, which resulted in the vassalization of Rum, which was forced to pay a major annual tax. With the [[division of the Mongol Empire]], Anatolia came under the influence of the [[Ilkhanate]], which was founded by [[Hulegu Khan]] ({{reign|1256|65}}). During the chaos caused by the Anatolian campaign of the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultan]] [[Baibars]] of [[Egypt]] in 1277, Ala al-Din Siyavush, commonly known as [[Jimri]], who was a pretender to the Seljuk legacy, revolted against the Mongols.{{sfn|Peacock|2000}} Husam al-Din, a member of the Germiyanids,{{efn|Husam al-Din was the brother of Yakub I according to İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=54}}}} fought against Jimri and [[Shams al-Din Mehmed|Mehmed]] of [[Karamanids|Karaman]] in western Anatolia.{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} Although Jimri and Mehmed were eliminated, the Karamanids' presence in Anatolia persisted, signaling further division in the region, which was symptomatic of the downfall of the Seljuks.{{sfn|Peacock|2000}}


===Yakub I (c. 1300 – c. 1340)===
Germiyans played a crucial role in settling [[Turkish people|Turkish]] populations along the coastal regions of the [[Aegean Sea]], the founders of the Beyliks of [[Aydinids|Aydin]], [[Sarukhanids|Sarukhan]], [[İnançoğlu]] and [[Beylik of Menteşe|Menteşe]] having started out as Germiyan commanders.
{{main|Yakub I of Germiyan}}
The Germiyan attempted to declare independence from the Sultanate of Rum when [[Mesud II]] became the [[sultan]] following the execution of his father, [[Kaykhusraw III]], by the Mongols in 1283. The conflict between the Germiyanids and the Seljuks went dormant upon Mesud II's death, and Yakub agreed to become a vassal of the new ruler, [[Kayqubad III]]. At that time, Yakub's realm extended as east as [[Ankara]]. His domain included [[Denizli]] and [[Karahisar]], according to [[Nicephorus Gregoras]], and [[Tripolis on the Meander]], according to [[George Pachymeres]].{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}}
{{Location map+ | Turkey
| width = 300
| caption = The locations of towns in Anatolia.
| relief = 1
| places =
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Ankara
| position = right
| lat_deg = 39 | lat_min = 55 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 32 | lon_min = 51 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Malatya
| position = right
| lat_deg = 38 | lat_min = 20 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 38 | lon_min = 19 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Denizli
| position = left
| lat_deg = 37 | lat_min = 47 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 29 | lon_min = 05 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Afyonkarahisar
| position = right
| lat_deg = 38 | lat_min = 45 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 30 | lon_min = 32 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Simav
| position = left
| lat_deg = 39 | lat_min = 05 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 28 | lon_min = 59 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Kula
| position = left
| lat_deg = 38 | lat_min = 32 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 28 | lon_min = 38 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Turkey
| marksize = 10
| label = Kütahya
| position = top
| lat_deg = 39 | lat_min = 25 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 29 | lon_min = 59 | lon_dir = E
}}
}}
Contemporary historian [[Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari|al-Umari]] described Yakub as the most powerful Turkish [[emir]], being the suzerain of many of his neighbors, with the [[Byzantine Empire]] paying him 100,000 pieces of gold each year.{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} Al-Umari further relayed the observations of travelers Haydar al-Uryan and Balaban, that Yakub's domains included about 700 settlements. He possessed 40,000 cavalry and was able to raise 200,000 troops in times of war, although historian Varlık considers this number exaggerated.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}}


Yakub eventually conquered the regions of [[Simav]] and [[Kula, Manisa|Kula]], which were later regained by the [[Catalan Company]]. Similarly, [[Alaşehir|Philadelphia]] (later known as Alaşehir), which he had earlier taken over, was lost to the Catalans in the spring of 1304, but the town started paying him [[jizya]] by 1314.{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} Yakub had hostile relations with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman state]], and provoked the [[Tatars]] of the {{ill|Chavdar (tribe)|tr|Çavdar Tatarları|lt=Chavdar}} tribe near [[İnönü, Eskişehir|Karacahisar]] to attack them in 1313. After having eliminated the [[Hamidid]] and [[Eshrefid]] begs in 1325, [[Timurtash]], the Ilkhanid governor of Anatolia, attempted to enact authority over the rulers of western Anatolia and seize the territory of Germiyan, Philadephila, Denizli, and Menteshe. Yakub's son-in-law, who was the lord of [[Afyonkarahisar]], fled to [[Kütahya]] from [[Eretna]], who was an officer under Timurtash tasked to capture the city. When Yakub was about to engage in a battle with Eretna, the latter was called back by Timurtash in 1327.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}}
They rebelled against the central power in 1283, upon the execution of the sultan [[Kaykhusraw III]] by the Mongols, and placing of [[Mesud II]] on the Seljuq throne. The struggle between combined Mongol-Seljuq forces based in [[Konya]] and the rebel forces of Germiyan continued until 1290. An agreement could only be reached in 1299, upon which the Germiyan Dynasty also entered into possession of [[Ankara]]. When the [[Ilkhanid]] governor [[Chupan|Emir Çoban]] took over Anatolia in 1314, they declared allegiance and concentrated on raids towards the regions to their west.


The region under Yakub was economically prosperous{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} and saw an increase in literary and scientific patronage.{{sfn|Varlık|2013|p=279}} [[Rumi]]'s grandson Ulu Arif Chelebi visited the region by 1312 and maintained spiritual authority over Yakub.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}}
Their western offshoots that were the Beyliks of [[Beylik of Menteşe|Menteşe]], [[Aydinids|Aydin]], [[Beylik of Lâdik|Ladik]], [[Sarukhanids|Sarukhan]] and [[Karasids|Karasi]] were all subject to the Germiyan in the early periods of their foundation, while the Beyliks of [[Sâhib Ata]] and [[Hamidids]] to the south had to rely on them for protection against attacks from the [[Karamanids]]. As for the northern regions of Anatolia, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] sources record [[Umur Beg|Umur Bey]], a commander and son-in-law to the Germiyan family, to be the possessor of [[Paphlagonia]], where [[Jandarids|Jandarid]] dynasty was to rule only after Germiyan power weakened.
[[File:Kütahya hisar-üçler tepesinden.jpg|thumb|left|A view of Kütahya and its castle.]]
Yakub struck a single type of coin late into his reign.{{sfn|Foss|2022|p=210}} An unnamed coin minted in 1307 mentioning the title ''Khan-i Germiyan'' is identified with Yakub I. In the inscriptions of the castle of [[Sandıklı]], which were later moved to a nearby fountain, he was referred to as ''Sultan al-Germiyaniyya Chelebi al-Azam azzamallahu kadrehu''. Yakub owned a ''[[waqf]]'' (charitable endowment) for the ''mevlevihane'' (congregational place for the [[Mevlevi Order]]) of Karahisar. According to [[İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı]], he possibly owned another ''waqf'' at the [[zawiya (institution)|zawiya]] of the village of Hacim near [[Uşak]], which dates to 1321. However, there the owner's father was recorded as Mehmed.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|pp=43–44}}


Yakub is known to have exchanged letters with the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] in 1340; these are the latest known records of his life, and his exact year of death is unknown.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}} According to the 17th-century traveler [[Evliya Çelebi]], who wrote three centuries after Yakub's death, he was buried at the hill of Hıdırlık near Kütahya.{{sfn|Varlık|2013|p=279}}
Their strong political entity was eventually surrounded by newer states established by their own former commanders, leaving the Germiyan no outlet to the coastline or to Byzantine territory. Their powerful Karamanid neighbors exerting constant pressure from the east, Germiyan gradually fell under the rising influence of the Ottomans. [[Bayezid I]] married with [[Sultan Hatun (wife of Bayezid I)|Sultan Hatun]], a Germiyanid princess, and acquired the eastern portion of Germiyan as a concession in order to border the Ottoman rival, the [[Karamanids]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=21}}</ref>


===Mehmed (c. 1340 – 1361) and Suleiman (1361 – 1387)===
==Legacy==
{{main|Mehmed of Germiyan|Suleiman of Germiyan}}
Mehmed, nicknamed ''Chakhshadan'', retook Kula and Angir from the Catalan Company.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}} Suleiman was the elder son of Mehmed Chakhshadan, the second Bey of Germiyan. He ascended to the throne upon the death of his father.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|pp=33–35}} Suleiman Shah's reign was initially peaceful. However, when Husam al-Din Ilyas of [[Hamidids|Hamid]] took refuge at his court from [[Alaattin Ali of Karaman|Ala al-Din]] of Karaman, Suleiman Shah assisted the Hamidids in recovering their lands lost to the Karamanids. This initiated a rivalry between Ala al-Din and Suleiman Shah.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=45}}


Suleiman Shah sought new alliances as protection from the neighboring Karamanids and the ever-expanding [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. He arranged a marriage between his daughter [[Devletşah Hatun]] and [[Murad I]]'s son [[Bayezid I|Bayezid]]. Murad I accepted the offer, hoping to expand the Ottoman influence over Anatolia. He sent the [[kadi (Ottoman Empire)|kadi]] of [[Bursa]], Mehmed Efendi, {{lang|tr|emir-i alem}} Aksungur Agha, as well as their consorts, [[Çavuş|Chavushbashi]] Demirhan, and the nanny of Bayezid to [[Kütahya]] to formally request marriage with Suleiman's daughter. Suleiman Shah dispatched the Islamic scholar Ishak Fakih to the Ottoman capital, who returned with a gift from the Ottomans including the famous Germiyan [[atlas]], [[Denizli]] clothes, silver, and gold. Moreover, Suleiman gave Kütahya, [[Simav]], [[Eğrigöz]], and [[Tavşanlı]] to the Ottomans as part of the [[dowry]].{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=61}}{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} Apart from these towns, many smaller settlements were annexed by a force of 2–3,000 Ottoman troops escorting the wedding convoy.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=61–63}}{{efn|These settlements were:
The actual Turkish province of [[Kütahya Province|Kütahya]] was called the sub-province (''[[sanjak]]'') and later province (''[[vilayet]]'') of Germiyan until the early years of the [[Republic of Turkey]], when it was renamed after its central town.
* In the [[nahiyah]] of Kütahya: Kızılca-viran, Seydi-köy, Eriklü, Şeyh-ömer, İne-gâzi, Elma-ağacı, Kara-ağaç, Süle-oğlu, Timürcü-viran, Hoca-oğlu, Çomar ve çöplü
* Yoncalı: Kara-ağaç, Uç-ağacı, Sele-oğlu;
* Sazanos: Hisar çavdar, Ağar;
* Tavşanlı: Çukur-viran;
* Altıntaş: Virancık, Çakır-sazı, Sevdiğin;
* Simav: Yenice, Kara-abdal;
* Kula: Akça-in, Balçıklu;
* Aslan-apa: Kulaksuz, and Güğüm.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=61–63}}}} The exact reason why he left the capital to the Ottomans is a matter of dispute. Ottoman chroniclers explained it through the rivalry between Karaman and Germiyan and the latter's preference for Ottoman protection. The wedding took place in 1381 in Kütahya,{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=59–60}} after which Bayezid became the governor of Kütahya, and Suleiman Shah had to retreat to [[Kula, Manisa|Kula]].{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=65}} Suleiman died in early 1387 before April{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=66}} and was buried in Gürhane Medrese.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=46}}
[[File:Germiyanoğlu Süleyman Şah Türbesi.jpg|thumb|The tomb of Suleiman Shah in Kula.]]


===Yakub II (1387–1429)===
The founding dynasty of the beylik produced illustrious descendants either under the [[Ottoman Empire]] or in present-day Turkey, a notable one among these being the 19th century [[List of Ottoman Grand Viziers|grand vizier]] [[Abdurrahman Nureddin Pasha]].
{{main|Yakub II}}
====Early life and first reign (1387–1390)====
Yakub's parents were Suleiman Shah and a daughter of [[Umur]], the ruler of the [[Aydinids]] in western Anatolia.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=67}} Yakub was the ''wali'' (governor) of [[Uşak]] and [[Şuhut]] during his father's reign.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=47}} He inherited the throne when his father died in 1387 and maintained peace in the realm until 1390. He supported the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultanate]] at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] along with the beyliks of Kastamonu, [[Sarukhanids|Saruhan]], Aydın, [[Menteshe]], and [[Hamidids|Hamid]]. However, when the Ottoman Sultan Murad I died in battle and was succeeded by his son Bayezid I, Yakub, as well as [[Kadi Burhan al-Din]] and the heads of Saruhan, Hamid, and Menteshe, sided with the [[Karamanids]] in a war against the Ottomans with the hopes that they could reclaim their land. While Karaman seized [[Beyşehir]], Yakub started capturing some of the former possessions of Germiyan that his father had given to the Ottomans as part of Devletşah Hatun's dowry.


Before returning to Anatolia from the [[Balkans]], Bayezid first ensured stability in the latter region by making peace with [[Moravian Serbia|Serbia]] and concluding internal conflicts within the [[Byzantine Empire]] in his favor. Intimidated by Bayezid's seizure of Saruhan, Aydın, and Menteshe, Yakub attempted to return to good terms with him through various gifts but was nevertheless imprisoned and kept in the castle of [[Ipsala]]. In 1390, the entire realm of Germiyan came under Ottoman control, with Yakub no longer as its ruler.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=68–69}} Sari Timurtash Pasha was appointed as the ''[[beylerbey]]'' (governor) of [[Anatolia Eyalet]].{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=72}}
The [[Egyptian National Library and Archives]] keeps a copy of [[Qabus-Nama]] in [[Old Anatolian Turkish]], written during the reign of [[Süleyman of Germiyan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Sadettin Buluç|title=Belleten|section=Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle Bir Kabus-name Çevirisi|page=195|publisher=[[Turkish Language Association]]|year=1969|lang=tr}}</ref>


====Restoration of rule====
==See also==
Yakub sought the protection of [[Timur]] ({{reign|1370|1405}}) in 1399, having escaped from prison and traveled to [[Syria (region)|Syria]] in disguise through the [[Mediterranean Sea]] presumably the same year.{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} He allied with Timur against the Ottomans with the guarantee that his rule would be restored, and fought for him at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402. The former troops of Germiyan, Aydın, and Menteshe were initially under Bayezid's command, but switched sides when it became clear that their leaders had sided with Timur. Yakub recognized the sultan during the skirmish and had him captured. The Ottomans were ultimately defeated, and Timur restored the former Germiyan possessions to Yakub. Timur stayed in Kütahya for some time, subjecting the inhabitants to a one-time tax and confiscating the treasury of Sari Timurtash Pasha.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=71–72}}
* [[Süleyman of Germiyan]]
[[File:Aydin in 14 century.png|thumb|{{color box|#CDAE88}} Germiyan, {{circa|1410}}]]
* [[Yakup II of Germiyan]]


====Second and third reigns (1402–1411, 1414–1429)====
{{History of Turkey}}
During the [[Ottoman Interregnum]] (1402–1413), Yakub allied himself with the future Ottoman sultan [[Mehmed I|Mehmed Chelebi]] ({{reign|1413|21}}), one of the sons of Bayezid, against his brothers. As a result, Germiyan–Karaman relations gradually transitioned into hostility, as the latter's rivalry against the Ottomans ensued. This escalated to a war between the two in September 1410, and Kütahya fell to [[Mehmed II of Karaman]] ({{reign|1=1398|2=99|3=1402|4=20|5=1421|6=23}}) the next year, which effectively ended Yakub's second reign.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|p=75}} Mehmed II further laid siege to [[Bursa]] for 31 days in 1413 and set the city on fire, which prompted Mehmed Chelebi to quickly return to Anatolia after having defeated his brother, [[Musa Çelebi|Musa Chelebi]], in [[Rumelia]]. When Musa's remains were brought to Bursa, signaling the defeat, Mehmed II of Karaman retreated in a hurry and left the territories he had taken from Germiyan. Mehmed Chelebi reinstated Yakub's rule in Germiyan in 1414. Yakub accommodated and supplied the Ottoman army during the following campaigns against Karaman. His rule until 1421 was largely free of threats.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=75–76}}

When Mehmed Chelebi's son [[Murad II]] rose to the Ottoman throne, Yakub's relations with the Ottomans took a new turn. Murad's younger brother and [[Sanjak of Hamid|governor of Hamid]], [[Mustafa Çelebi|Mustafa Chelebi]] was sponsored by Yakub, Karaman, and the Turghudlu tribe of Turkmens as a claimant to the Ottoman throne. Mustafa besieged and gained control of [[Iznik]], and declared himself ruler, taking advantage of Murad's investment in the [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)]]. However, the local Ottoman guardians did not allow Mustafa to depart from the city, on the orders of the sultan.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=76–77}} Murad swiftly reclaimed control of the city and executed Mustafa. Yakub then reverted to friendly interactions with Murad, realizing that he had no other choice to survive. Even though Aydın and Menteshe were already under direct Ottoman control, Murad did not attempt to enact his sovereignty in Germiyan. By then, it had become subordinate to the Ottomans with their constant military involvement in the region. Likewise, Yakub bequeathed his domains to Murad, as he had no sons and did not want to hand over the rule to his sister's children, who were Murad II's half-uncles.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=78–79}} In 1428, at an old age, he traveled to Bursa and paid respects to the graves of [[Osman I]] and [[Orhan]].{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=78–79}} He was later welcomed by Murad in a lavish ceremony in [[Edirne]] and formally declared his will there. Sometime after returning to Germiyan, he fell sick, dying in January 1429.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=51}} Murad annexed Germiyan as requested by Yakub, which brought the history of Germiyan to an end.{{sfn|Varlık|1974|pp=78–79}}
[[File:Yakub bey mezar.JPG|thumb|Yakub's grave in the Encaustic Tile Museum (Yakub Chelebi Külliye) in Kütahya.]]

==Culture==
===Architecture===
Yakub's architectural legacy included the Yakub Chelebi [[Külliye]] (building complex) in Kütahya. It was built in 1411–12 and is composed of an [[imaret]], [[masjid]], [[türbe]] (tomb), [[madrasa]] (school), and library. After five months of operation, the Karamanid occupation forced the imaret to close for two and a half years. In 1414, when the region was regained by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I on behalf of Yakub, the building returned to use, and inscriptions ({{transl|ota|vakfiye}}), 2 by 3.70 meters in size, were added to the building, detailing its history. The inscriptions indicate that the imaret was owned by Mehmed I. It was later destroyed and the building was restored in accordance with its original form by its [[waqf]] (endowment) trustee Ishak Fakih bin Halil in 1440–41. In 1803, the Ottoman governor of [[Anatolia Eyalet|Anatolia]], Gurju Osman Pasha, commissioned its reparation and merged the imaret and the masjid. The tomb includes the sarcophagi of Yakub II and his wife Pasha Kerime Hatun, which are ornamented with [[encaustic tiles]]. The building was restored again in 1999 and reopened as the Encaustic Tile Museum.{{sfn|Bilecik|2013|pp=279–280}}
[[File:Kütahya Ceramics Museum exterior 9035.jpg|thumb|Exterior of the former Yakub Chelebi Külliye.]]

===Literature===
Suleiman Shah was described as a generous ruler, and many literary works were produced under him. Suleiman had [[Mustafa Sheykhoghlu|Shaykh-oghlu Mustafa]], who was the [[nişancı|nishanji]], defterdar, and treasurer at Suleiman's court, translate several [[Persian language|Persian]] works to [[Turkish language|Turkish]], {{transl|ota|[[Qabus-nama|Ḳābūs-name]]}} (kept by the [[Egyptian National Library and Archives]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Sadettin Buluç|title=Belleten|section=Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle Bir Kabus-name Çevirisi|page=195|publisher=[[Turkish Language Association]]|year=1969|lang=tr}}</ref>) and {{transl|ota|[[Marzban-nama|Marzbān-nāme]]}}. Shaykh-oghlu has also authored a prose, ''Kanz al-kubarāʾ'', and a verse romance, ''Khurshīdnāme'', dedicated to Suleiman Shah. Manuscripts of these works are kept in [[Istanbul]], [[London]], and [[Paris]].{{sfn|Mélikoff|1965}} The poet [[Taceddin Ahmedi|Ahmedi]] first devoted his ''[[Iskendername]]'' to Suleiman Shah but after his death, added a part about the Ottomans and Bayezid I's son [[Süleyman Çelebi|Suleiman Chelebi]], finalizing the work in February 1390.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|1969|p=46}}

The Germiyanid palace became a center of science and literature during Yakub II's reign. Poet Sheikhi Sinan was known as a {{transl|ar|[[sahib|musahib]]}} (compatriot) of Yakub. The [[Persian language|Persian]] work ''Tabirname'' was translated into [[Turkish language|Turkish]] by {{ill|Ahmed-i Dai|tr|Ahmed-i Dâî}} on the orders of Yakub II.{{sfn|Varlık|1996|p=35}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==Sources==
==Bibliography==
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFMélikoff1965|CITEREFVarlık1996|CITEREFVarlık2013|CITEREFBilecik2013|CITEREFPeacock2000}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam |first=Gülberk |last=Bilecik |title=Yâkub Çelebi Külliyesi |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yakub-celebi-kulliyesi |year=2013 |volume=43 |pages=279–280}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WaKed2iNgC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA37&vq=germiyanid&dq=beylik&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=vzENqPi4ZWXYa6Q4oP2NLXxXo9w (limited preview)] {{cite book | title = The Origins of the Ottoman Empire|ISBN=0-7914-0819-1 |author= Mehmet Fuat Köprülü |author-link= Mehmet Fuat Köprülü | translator=Gary Leiser |publisher=State University of New York Press| year= 1992}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=Clifford Edmund |author1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |date=1996 |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]}}
*{{cite journal |first=Cemal |last=Kafadar |title=A Rome of One's Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24 |publisher=Brill |year=2007 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Foss |first1=Clive |title=The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Studies in Byzantium |isbn=9780198865438}}
{{Refend}}
*{{cite journal |first=Cemal |last=Kafadar |title=A Rome of One's Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24 |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |pages=7–25}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=D-WaKed2iNgC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA37&vq=germiyanid&dq=beylik&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=vzENqPi4ZWXYa6Q4oP2NLXxXo9w (limited preview)] {{cite book | title = The Origins of the Ottoman Empire|isbn=0-7914-0819-1 |author= Mehmet Fuat Köprülü |author-link= Mehmet Fuat Köprülü | translator=Gary Leiser |publisher=State University of New York Press| year= 1992}}
* {{Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|volume=2|title=Germiyān-Og̲h̲ullari̊̊|page(s)=|first=I.|last=Mélikoff|author-link=Irène Mélikoff|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/germiyan-oghullari-SIM_2434}}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica Online |title=Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum |first=Andrew Christian Spencer |last=Peacock |author-link=A. C. S. Peacock |year=2000 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii#:~:text=SALJUQS%20OF%20RUM,-SALJUQS&text=A%20dynasty%20of%20Turkish%20origin,1081%2D1308). |access-date=2 March 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Uzunçarşılı |first1=İsmail Hakkı |author-link1=İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı |title=Anadolu Beylikleri Ve Akkoyunlu, Karakoyunlu Devletleri |trans-title=Anatolian Beyliks and Aq Qoyunlu, Qara Qoyunlu States |date=1969 |publisher=Turkish Historical Society Press |isbn=9751624576 |oclc=563553149 |url=https://archive.org/details/IsmailHakkUzuncarsl.AnadoluBeylikleriVeAkkoyunluKarakoyunluDevletleri1969/page/n27/mode/2up |access-date=8 January 2024 |language=tr}}
* {{cite book |last1=Varlık |first1=Mustafa Çetin |title=Germiyan-oğulları tarihi (1300-1429) |date=1974 |publisher= Atatürk University Press |location=Ankara |oclc=6807984 |url=https://archive.org/details/m.-c.-varlik-germiyan-ogullari-tarihi-1300-1429-1974./mode/2up |access-date=8 January 2024 |lang=tr}}
* {{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam |first=Mustafa Çetin |last=Varlık |title=Germiyanoğulları |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/germiyanogullari |year=1996 |volume=14 |pages=33–35}}
* {{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam |first=Mustafa Çetin |last=Varlık |title=Yâkub Bey |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yakub-bey |year=2013 |volume=43 |pages=278–279}}


{{History of Turkey topics}}
{{History of Turkey topics}}
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[[Category:States and territories established in 1300]]
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[[Category:Germiyan]]
[[Category:Anatolian beyliks]]
[[Category:Anatolian beyliks]]
[[Category:History of Kütahya]]
[[Category:History of Kütahya]]

Latest revision as of 01:54, 1 November 2024

For the place in Azerbaijan, see Germiyan, Azerbaijan.

Germiyan
1300–1429
Beylik of Germiyan (light red) in 1300.
Beylik of Germiyan (light red) in 1300.
CapitalKütahya
Common languagesOld Anatolian Turkish
Religion
Muslim
GovernmentMonarchy
Bey 
• 1300–1340
Yakub I
• 1340–1361
Mehmed
• 1361–1387
Suleiman
• 1387–1429
Yakub II
Historical eraLate Medieval
• Established
1300
• Disestablished
1429
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Sultanate of Rûm
Ottoman Empire
Part of a series on the
History of Turkey
Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921
Prehistory
Palaeolithic Anatolia c. 500,000– 
10,000 BC
Mesolithic Anatolia c. 11,000– 
9,000 BC
Neolithic Anatolia c. 8,000– 
5,500 BC
Bronze Age
Troy 3000–700 BC
Hattians 2500–2000 BC
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Kussara 1780–1680 BC
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Kizzuwatna 1650–1450 BC
Hittites 1680–1220 BC
Arzawa 1500–1320 BC
Mitanni 1500–1300 BC
Hayasa-Azzi 1500–1290 BC
Lycia 1450–350 BC
Assuwa 1300–1250 BC
Diauehi 1200–800 BC
Neo-Hittites 1200–800 BC
Phrygia 1200–700 BC
Caria 1150–547 BC
Tuwanuwa 1000–700 BC
Ionia 1000–545 BC
Urartu 859–595/585 BC
Iron Age
Diauehi 1200–800 BC
Neo-Hittites 1200–800 BC
Phrygia 1200–700 BC
Caria 1150–547 BC
Doris 1100–560 BC
Aeolis 1000–560 BC
Tuwanuwa 1000–700 BC
Ionia 1000–545 BC
Urartu 859–595/585 BC
Median Empire 678–549 BC
Lydia 685–547 BC
Classical Age
Achaemenid Empire 559–331 BC
Kingdom of Alexander the Great 334–301 BC
Kingdom of Cappadocia 322–130 BC
Antigonids 306–168 BC
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Galatia 281–64 BC
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Eastern Roman Empire (330–1453; 1204-1261 in exile as Empire of Nicaea)
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The Germiyanids (Old Anatolian Turkish: كرميان; Turkish: Germiyanoğulları Beyliği or Germiyan Beyliği) were a prominent Anatolian beylik established by the Oghuz Turkish tribes[1] (probably the Afshar tribe)[2] after the decline of the Sultanate of Rûm. While the beylik was always mentioned as being ethnically Turkoman or Oghuz Turkish, the population consisted of Turks and Yezidi Kurds, brought by the Seljuks from the east of Malatya to western Anatolia as militia guards against the threatening Turkish tribesmen.[3][4][5][6][7]

Origins

According to the historians Agoston and Masters, the Germiyanoğulları were Turkomans who had immigrated to the west because of Mongol pressure in the second half of the 13th century.[8] The Germiyanids were of an Afshar branch of the Oghuz Turks.[9] The Germiyanids likely came from Kerman or Fars Province, and perhaps headed west with the Khwarazmshahs. After the death of Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, they remained in the Malatya area for a while, then moved to Kütahya, where they established the beylik.[9]

According to the historian Petry, the Germiyanids were a Turco-Kurdish dynasty.[6] However, cultural historian Cemal Kafadar states the ethnic makeup of the dynasty is too complex for a simple straightforward interpretation.[10]

History

Background

During the 11th century, much of West Asia was subject to Seljuk rule. A branch of the Seljuk dynasty formed the Sultanate of Rum, an Islamic state in Anatolia, which saw its height from the late 12th century to 1237.[11] The Germiyan first appeared in 1239 under Kaykhusraw II's rule of the Sultanate of Rum. Muzaffar al-Din, Yakub I's paternal grandfather,[12] was tasked with subduing Baba Ishak's rebellion in the area around Malatya.[13] Kaykhusraw II faced a major defeat by the Mongol Empire at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, which resulted in the vassalization of Rum, which was forced to pay a major annual tax. With the division of the Mongol Empire, Anatolia came under the influence of the Ilkhanate, which was founded by Hulegu Khan (r. 1256–65). During the chaos caused by the Anatolian campaign of the Mamluk Sultan Baibars of Egypt in 1277, Ala al-Din Siyavush, commonly known as Jimri, who was a pretender to the Seljuk legacy, revolted against the Mongols.[11] Husam al-Din, a member of the Germiyanids,[a] fought against Jimri and Mehmed of Karaman in western Anatolia.[13] Although Jimri and Mehmed were eliminated, the Karamanids' presence in Anatolia persisted, signaling further division in the region, which was symptomatic of the downfall of the Seljuks.[11]

Yakub I (c. 1300 – c. 1340)

Main article: Yakub I of Germiyan

The Germiyan attempted to declare independence from the Sultanate of Rum when Mesud II became the sultan following the execution of his father, Kaykhusraw III, by the Mongols in 1283. The conflict between the Germiyanids and the Seljuks went dormant upon Mesud II's death, and Yakub agreed to become a vassal of the new ruler, Kayqubad III. At that time, Yakub's realm extended as east as Ankara. His domain included Denizli and Karahisar, according to Nicephorus Gregoras, and Tripolis on the Meander, according to George Pachymeres.[13]

Germiyanids is located in Turkey
Ankara
Ankara
Malatya
Malatya
Denizli
Denizli
Afyonkarahisar
Afyonkarahisar
Simav
Simav
Kula
Kula
Kütahya
Kütahya
class=notpageimage|
The locations of towns in Anatolia.

Contemporary historian al-Umari described Yakub as the most powerful Turkish emir, being the suzerain of many of his neighbors, with the Byzantine Empire paying him 100,000 pieces of gold each year.[13] Al-Umari further relayed the observations of travelers Haydar al-Uryan and Balaban, that Yakub's domains included about 700 settlements. He possessed 40,000 cavalry and was able to raise 200,000 troops in times of war, although historian Varlık considers this number exaggerated.[14]

Yakub eventually conquered the regions of Simav and Kula, which were later regained by the Catalan Company. Similarly, Philadelphia (later known as Alaşehir), which he had earlier taken over, was lost to the Catalans in the spring of 1304, but the town started paying him jizya by 1314.[13] Yakub had hostile relations with the Ottoman state, and provoked the Tatars of the Chavdar [tr] tribe near Karacahisar to attack them in 1313. After having eliminated the Hamidid and Eshrefid begs in 1325, Timurtash, the Ilkhanid governor of Anatolia, attempted to enact authority over the rulers of western Anatolia and seize the territory of Germiyan, Philadephila, Denizli, and Menteshe. Yakub's son-in-law, who was the lord of Afyonkarahisar, fled to Kütahya from Eretna, who was an officer under Timurtash tasked to capture the city. When Yakub was about to engage in a battle with Eretna, the latter was called back by Timurtash in 1327.[14]

The region under Yakub was economically prosperous[13] and saw an increase in literary and scientific patronage.[15] Rumi's grandson Ulu Arif Chelebi visited the region by 1312 and maintained spiritual authority over Yakub.[14]

A view of Kütahya and its castle.

Yakub struck a single type of coin late into his reign.[16] An unnamed coin minted in 1307 mentioning the title Khan-i Germiyan is identified with Yakub I. In the inscriptions of the castle of Sandıklı, which were later moved to a nearby fountain, he was referred to as Sultan al-Germiyaniyya Chelebi al-Azam azzamallahu kadrehu. Yakub owned a waqf (charitable endowment) for the mevlevihane (congregational place for the Mevlevi Order) of Karahisar. According to İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, he possibly owned another waqf at the zawiya of the village of Hacim near Uşak, which dates to 1321. However, there the owner's father was recorded as Mehmed.[17]

Yakub is known to have exchanged letters with the Mamluk Sultanate in 1340; these are the latest known records of his life, and his exact year of death is unknown.[14] According to the 17th-century traveler Evliya Çelebi, who wrote three centuries after Yakub's death, he was buried at the hill of Hıdırlık near Kütahya.[15]

Mehmed (c. 1340 – 1361) and Suleiman (1361 – 1387)

Main articles: Mehmed of Germiyan and Suleiman of Germiyan

Mehmed, nicknamed Chakhshadan, retook Kula and Angir from the Catalan Company.[14] Suleiman was the elder son of Mehmed Chakhshadan, the second Bey of Germiyan. He ascended to the throne upon the death of his father.[14] Suleiman Shah's reign was initially peaceful. However, when Husam al-Din Ilyas of Hamid took refuge at his court from Ala al-Din of Karaman, Suleiman Shah assisted the Hamidids in recovering their lands lost to the Karamanids. This initiated a rivalry between Ala al-Din and Suleiman Shah.[18]

Suleiman Shah sought new alliances as protection from the neighboring Karamanids and the ever-expanding Ottomans. He arranged a marriage between his daughter Devletşah Hatun and Murad I's son Bayezid. Murad I accepted the offer, hoping to expand the Ottoman influence over Anatolia. He sent the kadi of Bursa, Mehmed Efendi, emir-i alem Aksungur Agha, as well as their consorts, Chavushbashi Demirhan, and the nanny of Bayezid to Kütahya to formally request marriage with Suleiman's daughter. Suleiman Shah dispatched the Islamic scholar Ishak Fakih to the Ottoman capital, who returned with a gift from the Ottomans including the famous Germiyan atlas, Denizli clothes, silver, and gold. Moreover, Suleiman gave Kütahya, Simav, Eğrigöz, and Tavşanlı to the Ottomans as part of the dowry.[19][13] Apart from these towns, many smaller settlements were annexed by a force of 2–3,000 Ottoman troops escorting the wedding convoy.[20][b] The exact reason why he left the capital to the Ottomans is a matter of dispute. Ottoman chroniclers explained it through the rivalry between Karaman and Germiyan and the latter's preference for Ottoman protection. The wedding took place in 1381 in Kütahya,[21] after which Bayezid became the governor of Kütahya, and Suleiman Shah had to retreat to Kula.[22] Suleiman died in early 1387 before April[23] and was buried in Gürhane Medrese.[24]

The tomb of Suleiman Shah in Kula.

Yakub II (1387–1429)

Main article: Yakub II

Early life and first reign (1387–1390)

Yakub's parents were Suleiman Shah and a daughter of Umur, the ruler of the Aydinids in western Anatolia.[25] Yakub was the wali (governor) of Uşak and Şuhut during his father's reign.[26] He inherited the throne when his father died in 1387 and maintained peace in the realm until 1390. He supported the Ottoman Sultanate at the Battle of Kosovo along with the beyliks of Kastamonu, Saruhan, Aydın, Menteshe, and Hamid. However, when the Ottoman Sultan Murad I died in battle and was succeeded by his son Bayezid I, Yakub, as well as Kadi Burhan al-Din and the heads of Saruhan, Hamid, and Menteshe, sided with the Karamanids in a war against the Ottomans with the hopes that they could reclaim their land. While Karaman seized Beyşehir, Yakub started capturing some of the former possessions of Germiyan that his father had given to the Ottomans as part of Devletşah Hatun's dowry.

Before returning to Anatolia from the Balkans, Bayezid first ensured stability in the latter region by making peace with Serbia and concluding internal conflicts within the Byzantine Empire in his favor. Intimidated by Bayezid's seizure of Saruhan, Aydın, and Menteshe, Yakub attempted to return to good terms with him through various gifts but was nevertheless imprisoned and kept in the castle of Ipsala. In 1390, the entire realm of Germiyan came under Ottoman control, with Yakub no longer as its ruler.[27] Sari Timurtash Pasha was appointed as the beylerbey (governor) of Anatolia Eyalet.[28]

Restoration of rule

Yakub sought the protection of Timur (r. 1370–1405) in 1399, having escaped from prison and traveled to Syria in disguise through the Mediterranean Sea presumably the same year.[13] He allied with Timur against the Ottomans with the guarantee that his rule would be restored, and fought for him at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. The former troops of Germiyan, Aydın, and Menteshe were initially under Bayezid's command, but switched sides when it became clear that their leaders had sided with Timur. Yakub recognized the sultan during the skirmish and had him captured. The Ottomans were ultimately defeated, and Timur restored the former Germiyan possessions to Yakub. Timur stayed in Kütahya for some time, subjecting the inhabitants to a one-time tax and confiscating the treasury of Sari Timurtash Pasha.[29]

  Germiyan, c. 1410

Second and third reigns (1402–1411, 1414–1429)

During the Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413), Yakub allied himself with the future Ottoman sultan Mehmed Chelebi (r. 1413–21), one of the sons of Bayezid, against his brothers. As a result, Germiyan–Karaman relations gradually transitioned into hostility, as the latter's rivalry against the Ottomans ensued. This escalated to a war between the two in September 1410, and Kütahya fell to Mehmed II of Karaman (r. 1398–99, 1402–20) the next year, which effectively ended Yakub's second reign.[30] Mehmed II further laid siege to Bursa for 31 days in 1413 and set the city on fire, which prompted Mehmed Chelebi to quickly return to Anatolia after having defeated his brother, Musa Chelebi, in Rumelia. When Musa's remains were brought to Bursa, signaling the defeat, Mehmed II of Karaman retreated in a hurry and left the territories he had taken from Germiyan. Mehmed Chelebi reinstated Yakub's rule in Germiyan in 1414. Yakub accommodated and supplied the Ottoman army during the following campaigns against Karaman. His rule until 1421 was largely free of threats.[31]

When Mehmed Chelebi's son Murad II rose to the Ottoman throne, Yakub's relations with the Ottomans took a new turn. Murad's younger brother and governor of Hamid, Mustafa Chelebi was sponsored by Yakub, Karaman, and the Turghudlu tribe of Turkmens as a claimant to the Ottoman throne. Mustafa besieged and gained control of Iznik, and declared himself ruler, taking advantage of Murad's investment in the Siege of Constantinople (1422). However, the local Ottoman guardians did not allow Mustafa to depart from the city, on the orders of the sultan.[32] Murad swiftly reclaimed control of the city and executed Mustafa. Yakub then reverted to friendly interactions with Murad, realizing that he had no other choice to survive. Even though Aydın and Menteshe were already under direct Ottoman control, Murad did not attempt to enact his sovereignty in Germiyan. By then, it had become subordinate to the Ottomans with their constant military involvement in the region. Likewise, Yakub bequeathed his domains to Murad, as he had no sons and did not want to hand over the rule to his sister's children, who were Murad II's half-uncles.[33] In 1428, at an old age, he traveled to Bursa and paid respects to the graves of Osman I and Orhan.[33] He was later welcomed by Murad in a lavish ceremony in Edirne and formally declared his will there. Sometime after returning to Germiyan, he fell sick, dying in January 1429.[34] Murad annexed Germiyan as requested by Yakub, which brought the history of Germiyan to an end.[33]

Yakub's grave in the Encaustic Tile Museum (Yakub Chelebi Külliye) in Kütahya.

Culture

Architecture

Yakub's architectural legacy included the Yakub Chelebi Külliye (building complex) in Kütahya. It was built in 1411–12 and is composed of an imaret, masjid, türbe (tomb), madrasa (school), and library. After five months of operation, the Karamanid occupation forced the imaret to close for two and a half years. In 1414, when the region was regained by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I on behalf of Yakub, the building returned to use, and inscriptions (vakfiye), 2 by 3.70 meters in size, were added to the building, detailing its history. The inscriptions indicate that the imaret was owned by Mehmed I. It was later destroyed and the building was restored in accordance with its original form by its waqf (endowment) trustee Ishak Fakih bin Halil in 1440–41. In 1803, the Ottoman governor of Anatolia, Gurju Osman Pasha, commissioned its reparation and merged the imaret and the masjid. The tomb includes the sarcophagi of Yakub II and his wife Pasha Kerime Hatun, which are ornamented with encaustic tiles. The building was restored again in 1999 and reopened as the Encaustic Tile Museum.[35]

Exterior of the former Yakub Chelebi Külliye.

Literature

Suleiman Shah was described as a generous ruler, and many literary works were produced under him. Suleiman had Shaykh-oghlu Mustafa, who was the nishanji, defterdar, and treasurer at Suleiman's court, translate several Persian works to Turkish, Ḳābūs-name (kept by the Egyptian National Library and Archives[36]) and Marzbān-nāme. Shaykh-oghlu has also authored a prose, Kanz al-kubarāʾ, and a verse romance, Khurshīdnāme, dedicated to Suleiman Shah. Manuscripts of these works are kept in Istanbul, London, and Paris.[13] The poet Ahmedi first devoted his Iskendername to Suleiman Shah but after his death, added a part about the Ottomans and Bayezid I's son Suleiman Chelebi, finalizing the work in February 1390.[24]

The Germiyanid palace became a center of science and literature during Yakub II's reign. Poet Sheikhi Sinan was known as a musahib (compatriot) of Yakub. The Persian work Tabirname was translated into Turkish by Ahmed-i Dai [tr] on the orders of Yakub II.[37]

Notes

  1. ^ Husam al-Din was the brother of Yakub I according to İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı.[12]
  2. ^ These settlements were:
    • In the nahiyah of Kütahya: Kızılca-viran, Seydi-köy, Eriklü, Şeyh-ömer, İne-gâzi, Elma-ağacı, Kara-ağaç, Süle-oğlu, Timürcü-viran, Hoca-oğlu, Çomar ve çöplü
    • Yoncalı: Kara-ağaç, Uç-ağacı, Sele-oğlu;
    • Sazanos: Hisar çavdar, Ağar;
    • Tavşanlı: Çukur-viran;
    • Altıntaş: Virancık, Çakır-sazı, Sevdiğin;
    • Simav: Yenice, Kara-abdal;
    • Kula: Akça-in, Balçıklu;
    • Aslan-apa: Kulaksuz, and Güğüm.[20]

References

  1. ^ İnalcık, Halil (1993). The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire : essays on economy and society. Bloomington: Indiana University Turkish Studies. p. 97. ISBN 9781878318046.
  2. ^ Leiser, Gary; Koprulu, Fuat (1992). Origins of the Ottoman Empire. p. 37. ISBN 9781438410432.
  3. ^ Ducas, Harry J. Magoulias, Ducas, 1975 , Decline and fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, p. 265, Wayne State University Press, University of Virginia ISBN 0-8143-1540-2, ISBN 978-0-8143-1540-8, The Germiyan were probably Kurdish and Turkish half-breeds who came from east of Malatya.
  4. ^ Peter Malcolm Holt, 1986, The Age of the Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517, p. 176, Longman, University of Michigan, ISBN 0-582-49303-X, 9780582493032 The second of the eastern principalities, Germiyan, developed from a group, probably of mixed Kurdish and Turkish origin
  5. ^ Marios Philippides, Biblioteca apostolica vaticana - 1990, Byzantium, Europe, and the early Ottoman sultans, 1373-1513: an anonymous Greek chronicle of the seventeenth century, p. 6, A.D. Caratzas, University of Michigan, ISBN 0-89241-430-8, ISBN 978-0-89241-430-7, Near Byzantine borders in Phrygia, the emirate of Germiyan was formed by a mixed population of Turks and Kurds, who had come from east of Malatya
  6. ^ a b Carl F. Petry, 1998, The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1, p. 527, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-63313-3, ISBN 978-0-521-63313-0, An Anatolian Turco-Kurdish dynasty, with its capital at Kutahya
  7. ^ Bruinessen, Martin van (1992). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-85649-018-4.
  8. ^ Gabor Agoston-Bruce Masters, Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire, p. 41 ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1
  9. ^ a b Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, (1937), The Origins of the Ottoman Empire, p. 37
  10. ^ Kafadar 2007, p. 22.
  11. ^ a b c Peacock 2000.
  12. ^ a b Uzunçarşılı 1969, p. 54.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Mélikoff 1965.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Varlık 1996, pp. 33–35.
  15. ^ a b Varlık 2013, p. 279.
  16. ^ Foss 2022, p. 210.
  17. ^ Uzunçarşılı 1969, pp. 43–44.
  18. ^ Uzunçarşılı 1969, p. 45.
  19. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 61.
  20. ^ a b Varlık 1974, pp. 61–63.
  21. ^ Varlık 1974, pp. 59–60.
  22. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 65.
  23. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 66.
  24. ^ a b Uzunçarşılı 1969, p. 46.
  25. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 67.
  26. ^ Uzunçarşılı 1969, p. 47.
  27. ^ Varlık 1974, pp. 68–69.
  28. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 72.
  29. ^ Varlık 1974, pp. 71–72.
  30. ^ Varlık 1974, p. 75.
  31. ^ Varlık 1974, pp. 75–76.
  32. ^ Varlık 1974, pp. 76–77.
  33. ^ a b c Varlık 1974, pp. 78–79.
  34. ^ Uzunçarşılı 1969, p. 51.
  35. ^ Bilecik 2013, pp. 279–280.
  36. ^ Sadettin Buluç (1969). "Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle Bir Kabus-name Çevirisi". Belleten (in Turkish). Turkish Language Association. p. 195.
  37. ^ Varlık 1996, p. 35.

Bibliography

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