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[[File:Kaaba-plan.svg|thumb|right|300px|Technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elements]]
[[File:Kaaba-plan.svg|thumb|right|300px|Technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elements]]
[[File:Kaba01.jpg|left|thumb|Left: Conceptual representation of the Kaaba, as built by Abraham according to Arabian tradition; Right: Representation of the Kaaba as it stands today]]
[[File:Kaba01.jpg|left|thumb|Left: Conceptual representation of the Kaaba, as built by Abraham according to Arabian tradition; Right: Representation of the Kaaba as it stands today]]
The Kaaba is a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a [[Cube (geometry)|cube]]. It is made of [[granite]] from the hills near [[Mecca]], and stands upon a {{convert|25|cm|0|abbr=on}} [[marble]] base, which projects outwards about {{convert|35|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="eoi317"/> It is approximately {{convert|13.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, with sides measuring {{convert|11.03|m|ft|abbr=on}} by {{convert|12.86|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Peterson| first = Andrew| title = Dictionary of Islamic Architecture.| publisher = Routledge |year=1996| location = London| url = http://archnet.org/library/dictionary/}}</ref><ref name="eq76">Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an p. 76</ref> The four corners of the cool Kaaba roughly point toward the four doors of the school and toast jam (toast jam?)[[cardinal directions]] of the [[compass]].<ref name="eoi317"/> In the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the ''Ruknu l-Aswad'' "the Black Corner"" or ''al-Ħajaru l-Aswad'' "the [[Black Stone]]". At the northern corner is the ''Ruknu l-ˤĪrāqī'' "the Iraqi corner". The western corner is the ''Ruknu sh-Shāmī'' "the Levantine corner" and the southern is ''Ruknu l-Yamanī'' "the Yemeni corner".<ref name="eoi317"/><ref name="eq76"/>
The Kaaba is a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a [[Cube (geometry)|cube]]. It is made of [[granite]] from the hills near [[Mecca]], and stands upon a {{convert|25|cm|0|abbr=on}} [[marble]] base, which projects outwards about {{convert|35|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="eoi317"/> It is approximately {{convert|13.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, with sides measuring {{convert|11.03|m|ft|abbr=on}} by {{convert|12.86|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book| last = Peterson| first = Andrew| title = Dictionary of Islamic Architecture.| publisher = Routledge |year=1996| location = London| url = http://archnet.org/library/dictionary/}}</ref><ref name="eq76">Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an p. 76</ref> The four corners of the cool Kaaba roughly point toward the four doors of the school and [[cardinal directions]] of the [[compass]].<ref name="eoi317"/> In the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the ''Ruknu l-Aswad'' "the Black Corner"" or ''al-Ħajaru l-Aswad'' "the [[Black Stone]]". At the northern corner is the ''Ruknu l-ˤĪrāqī'' "the Iraqi corner". The western corner is the ''Ruknu sh-Shāmī'' "the Levantine corner" and the southern is ''Ruknu l-Yamanī'' "the Yemeni corner".<ref name="eoi317"/><ref name="eq76"/>


The Kaaba is covered by a black silk and gold curtain known as the [[kiswah]], which is replaced yearly.<ref>{{cite web| title = 'House of God' Kaaba gets new cloth| publisher = The Age Company Ltd.|year=2003| url = http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/02/11/1044725746252.html| accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = The Kiswa – (Kaaba Covering)| publisher = Al-Islaah Publications| url = http://members.tripod.com/worldupdates/newupdates10/id43.htm| accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref> About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with [[Qur'an]]ic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the ''[[Shahada]]''.
The Kaaba is covered by a black silk and gold curtain known as the [[kiswah]], which is replaced yearly.<ref>{{cite web| title = 'House of God' Kaaba gets new cloth| publisher = The Age Company Ltd.|year=2003| url = http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/02/11/1044725746252.html| accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = The Kiswa – (Kaaba Covering)| publisher = Al-Islaah Publications| url = http://members.tripod.com/worldupdates/newupdates10/id43.htm| accessdate = 2006-08-17}}</ref> About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with [[Qur'an]]ic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the ''[[Shahada]]''.

Revision as of 14:06, 31 August 2010

Kaaba
Religion
Location
LocationSaudi Arabia Mecca, Saudi Arabia

The Kaaba (Arabic: الكعبة / DIN 31635: al-Kaʿbah / IPA: [ˈkɑʕbɐ] / Template:Lang-en)[1] is a cube-shaped building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam.[2] The building predates Islam, and, according to Islamic tradition, the first building at the site was built by Abraham. The building has a mosque built around it, the Masjid al-Haram. All Muslims around the world face the Kaaba during prayers, no matter where they are.

One of the Five Pillars of Islam requires every Muslim to perform the Hajj pilgrimage at least once in his or her lifetime if they are able to do so. Multiple parts of the Hajj require pilgrims to walk seven times around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction (as viewed from above). This circumambulation, the Tawaf, is also performed by pilgrims during the Umrah (lesser pilgrimage).[2] However, the most dramatic times are during the Hajj, when about three million (officially) pilgrims simultaneously gather to circle the building on the same day.[3][4]

A Persian miniature painting depicting Kaaba and pilgrims, 17th century; Adilnor's Collection.

Location and physical attributes

Technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elements
File:Kaba01.jpg
Left: Conceptual representation of the Kaaba, as built by Abraham according to Arabian tradition; Right: Representation of the Kaaba as it stands today

The Kaaba is a large masonry structure roughly the shape of a cube. It is made of granite from the hills near Mecca, and stands upon a 25 cm (10 in) marble base, which projects outwards about 35 cm (14 in).[2] It is approximately 13.1 m (43 ft) high, with sides measuring 11.03 m (36.2 ft) by 12.86 m (42.2 ft).[5][6] The four corners of the cool Kaaba roughly point toward the four doors of the school and cardinal directions of the compass.[2] In the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the Ruknu l-Aswad "the Black Corner"" or al-Ħajaru l-Aswad "the Black Stone". At the northern corner is the Ruknu l-ˤĪrāqī "the Iraqi corner". The western corner is the Ruknu sh-Shāmī "the Levantine corner" and the southern is Ruknu l-Yamanī "the Yemeni corner".[2][6]

The Kaaba is covered by a black silk and gold curtain known as the kiswah, which is replaced yearly.[7][8] About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with Qur'anic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the Shahada.

In modern times, entry to the Kaaba's interior is generally not permitted except for certain rare occasions and for a limited number of guests. The entrance is a door set 2 m (7 ft) above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, which acts as the façade.[2] There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate of Banū Shaybah and the well of Zamzam. Inside the Kaaba, there is a marble and limestone floor. The interior walls are clad with marble halfway to the roof; tablets with Qur'anic inscriptions are inset in the marble. The top part of the walls are covered with a green cloth decorated with gold embroidered Qur'anic verses. Caretakers perfume the marble cladding with scented oil, the same oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside.

There is also a semi-circular wall opposite, but unconnected to, the north-west wall of the Kaaba known as the hatīm. This is 90 cm (35 in) in height and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in width, and is composed of white marble. At one time the space lying between the hatīm and the Kaaba belonged to the Kaaba itself, and for this reason it is not entered during the tawaf (ritual circumambulation). Some believe that the graves of the prophet Ishmael and his mother Hagar[2] are located in this space.

Muslims throughout the world face the Kaaba during prayers, which occur five times a day. For most places around the world, coordinates for Mecca suffice. Worshippers in the Sacred Mosque pray in concentric circles around the Kaaba.

The Black Stone is located on the eastern corner of the Kaaba.

Black Stone

Main article: Black Stone
The Black Stone.

The Black Stone is a significant feature of the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to be placed there by Ibrahim (Abraham) and Ismail (Ishmael).[9] Located at the eastern corner of the Kaaba, it is about 30 cm (12 in) in diameter and surrounded by a silver frame. Although not strictly obligatory, pilgrims can kiss the Stone, as Muhammad is said to have done.

The following passage gives an insight to the significance of the Black Stone in Islam:

Narrated 'Abis bin Rabia: Umar came near the Black Stone and kissed it and said, "No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither benefit anyone nor harm anyone. Had I not seen God's Apostle kissing you, I would not have kissed you." [10]

Large crowds can make kissing the Stone impossible, so as pilgrims walk round the Kaaba they point to the Stone on each pass.[11]

History

Islamic tradition

According to the Qur'an, the Kaaba was re-built by Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael).[12] Islamic traditions assert that the Kaaba "reflects" a house in heaven called al-Baytu l-Maʿmur[13] (Arabic: البيت المعمور) and that it was first built by the first man, Adam and is believed that it is the first building ever built on earth. Ibrahim and Ismail rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations.[14]

Before Islam

The Kaaba in 1910

As little is known of the history of the Kaaba, there are various opinions regarding its formation and significance.

The early Arabian population consisted primarily of warring nomadic tribes. When they did converge peacefully, it was usually under the protection of religious practices.[15] Writing in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Wensinck identifies Mecca with a place called Macoraba mentioned by Ptolemy. His text is believed to date from the second century AD, before the foundation of Islam,[16] and described it as a foundation in southern Arabia, built around a sanctuary. The area probably did not start becoming an area of religious pilgrimage until around the year AD 500. It was around then that the Quraysh tribe (into which Muhammad was later born) took control of it, and made an agreement with the local Kinana Bedouins for control.[17] The sanctuary itself, located in a barren valley surrounded by mountains, was probably built at the location of the water source today known as the Zamzam Well, an area of considerable religious significance.

In her book, Islam: A Short History, Karen Armstrong asserts that the Kaaba was dedicated to Hubal, a Nabatean deity, and contained 360 idols which either represented the days of the year,[18] or were effigies of the Arabian pantheon. Once a year, tribes from all around the Arabian peninsula, whether Christian or pagan, would converge on Mecca to perform the Hajj.

Imoti[19] contends that there were multiple such "Kaaba" sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, but this is the only one built of stone. The others also allegedly had counterparts to the Black Stone. There was a "red stone", the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman, and the "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of Tabala, south of Mecca). Grunebaum in Classical Islam points out that the experience of divinity of that time period was often associated with stone fetishes, mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."[20] The Kaaba was thought to be at the center of the world with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane, and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.[21] According to some sources, the Kaaba was a shrine for the Daughters of God (al-Lat, al-Uzza, and Manat) and Hubal.[22] [23]

According to Sarwar,[24] about four hundred years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named "Amr bin Lahyo bin Harath bin Amr ul-Qais bin Thalaba bin Azd bin Khalan bin Babalyun bin Saba", who was descended from Qahtan and king of Hijaz (the northwestern section of Saudi Arabia, which encompassed the cities of Mecca and Medina), had placed a Hubal idol onto the roof of the Kaaba, and this idol was one of the chief deities of the ruling Quraysh tribe. The idol was made of red agate, and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used for divination.[25]

To keep the peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within 20 miles (32 km) of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.[26]

Edward Gibbon writes about the Ka'bah and its existence before the Christian era in his book,

"The genuine antiquity of Caaba ascends beyond the Christian era in describing the coast of the Red sea the Greek historian Diodorus has remarked, between the Thamudites and the Sabeans, a famous temple, whose superior sanctity was revered by all the Arabians; the linen of silken veil, which is annually renewed by the Turkish emperor, was first offered by the Homerites, who reigned seven hundred years before the time of Mohammad."

[27]

Patricia Crone disagrees with most academic historians on most issues concerning the history of early Islam, including the history of the Kaaba. In Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Crone writes that she believes that the identification of Macoraba with the Kaaba is false, and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known as Arabia Felix.[28]

Patricia crone's disagreement was answered by Dr. Amaal Muhammad Al-Roubi in his book "A Response to Patrica Crone's book" . [29] [30]

G E von Grunebaum says ,

"Mecca is mentioned by Ptolemy, and the name he gives it allows us to identify it as a South Arabian foundation created around a sanctuary" [31]

Many Muslim and academic historians, stress the power and importance of the pre-Islamic Mecca.[weasel words] They depict it as a city grown rich on the proceeds of the spice trade. Crone believes that this is an exaggeration and that Makkan may only have been an outpost trading with nomads for leather, cloth, and camel butter. Crone argues that if Mecca had been a well-known center of trade, it would have been mentioned by later authors such as Procopius, Nonnosus, and the Syrian church chroniclers writing in Syriac. However, the town is absent from any geographies or histories written in the three centuries before the rise of Islam.[32]

According to The Encyclopædia Britannica, "before the rise of Islam it was revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage."[33] According to the German historian Eduard Glaser, the name "Kaaba" may have been related to the southern Arabian or Ethiopian word "mikrab", signifying a temple.[16] Again, Crone disputes this etymology.

At the time of Muhammad

A 1315 illustration from the Persian Jami al-Tawarikh, inspired by the story of Muhammad and the Meccan clan elders lifting the Black Stone into place when the Kaaba was rebuilt in the early 600s.[34]

At the time of Muhammad (CE 570–632), his tribe the Quraysh was in charge of the Kaaba, which was at that time a shrine containing hundreds of idols representing Arabian tribal gods and other religious figures, including Jesus and Mary. Muhammad earned the enmity of his tribe by claiming the shrine for the new religion of Islam that he preached. He wanted the Kaaba to be dedicated to the worship of the one God alone, and all the idols evicted. The Quraysh persecuted and harassed him continuously,[35] and he and his followers eventually migrated to Medina in 622.

After this big, large, huge migration, or Hijra, the Muslim community became a political and military force, continuously repelling Meccan attacks. In 630, two years after signing the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Meccan Quraysh attacked the Bedouin Khuza'a, breaking the peace treaty by doing so. The Muslims emerged as victors in the battle that followed this incident and Muhammad entered Mecca with his followers; they proceeded to the Kaaba. However, he refused to enter the Kaaba while there were idols in it, and sent Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and Mughira ibn Shu'ba to remove them.[36][37][38]

Narrated Ibn Abbas: When Allah's Apostle arrived in Mecca, he refused to enter the Ka'ba while there were idols in it. So he ordered that they be taken out. The pictures of the (Prophets) Abraham and Ishmael, holding arrows of divination in their hands, were carried out. The Prophet said, "May Allah ruin them (i.e. the infidels) for they knew very well that they (i.e. Abraham and Ishmael) never drew lots by these (divination arrows). Then the Prophet entered the Ka'ba and said. "Allahu Akbar" in all its directions and came out and not offer any prayer therein.

(Sahih Al-Bukhari Book 59, Hadith 584)

The Kaaba was re-dedicated as an Islamic house of worship, and henceforth, the annual pilgrimage was to be a Muslim rite, the Hajj, which visits the Kaaba and other sacred sites around Mecca.[39] Islamic histories also mention a reconstruction of the Kaaba around 600. A story found in Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasūl Allāh, one of the biographies of Muhammad (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume), describes Muhammad settling a quarrel between Meccan clans as to which clan should set the Black Stone cornerstone in place. According to Ishaq's biography, Muhammad's solution was to have all the clan elders raise the cornerstone on a cloak, and then Muhammad set the stone into its final place with his own hands.[34][40][41] Ibn Ishaq says that the timber for the reconstruction of the Kaaba came from a Greek ship that had been wrecked on the Red Sea coast at Shu'ayba, and the work was undertaken by a Coptic carpenter called Baqum.[42]

It is also claimed by the Shīʿa that the Kaaba is the birth place of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib, the fourth caliph and cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[39]

Since Muhammad's time

The site of Kaaba in 1880

The Kaaba has been repaired and reconstructed many times since Muhammad's day. Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, an early Muslim who ruled Mecca for many years between the death of ʿAli and the consolidation of Ummayad power, is said to have demolished the old Kaaba and rebuilt it to include the hatīm, a semi-circular wall now outside the Kaaba. He did so on the basis of a tradition (found in several hadith collections[43]) that the hatīm was a remnant of the foundations of the Abrahamic Kaaba, and that Muhammad himself had wished to rebuild so as to include it.

This structure was destroyed (or partially destroyed) in 683, during the war between al-Zubayr and Umayyad forces commanded by Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. Al-Hajjaj used stone-throwing catapults against the Meccans.

The Ummayads under ʿAbdu l-Malik ibn Marwan finally reunited all the former Islamic possessions and ended the long civil war. In 693 he had the remnants of al-Zubayr's Kaaba razed, and rebuilt on the foundations set by the Quraysh.[44] The Kaaba returned to the cube shape it had taken during Muhammad's lifetime.

During the Hajj of 930, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, removing it to the oasis region of Eastern Arabia known as al-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until the Abbasids ransomed it back in 952.

Apart from repair work, the basic shape and structure of the Kaaba have not changed since then.[45]

The Kaaba is depicted on the reverse of 500 Saudi Riyal, and the Iranian 2000 rials banknotes.[46]

Cleaning

The building is opened twice a year for a ceremony known as "the cleaning of the Kaaba." This ceremony takes place roughly thirty days before the start of the month of Ramadan and the same period of time before the start of the annual pilgrimage.

The keys to the Kaaba are held by the Banī Shaybat (بني شيبة) tribe. Members of the tribe greet visitors to the inside of the Kaaba on the occasion of the cleaning ceremony. A small number of dignitaries and foreign diplomats are invited to participate in the ceremony.[47] The governor of Mecca leads the honored guests who ritually clean the structure, using simple brooms. Washing of the Kaaba is done with a mixture of Zamzam and Persian rosewater.[48]

Qibla and prayer

Main article: Qibla

The Qibla is the Muslim name for the direction faced during prayer

Quran
History
Manuscripts
Divisions
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Reading
Translations
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While it may appear to some non-Muslims that Muslims worship the Kaaba, it is simply the focal point for prayer.

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as al-Kaʿbatu l-Mušarrafah (الكعبة المشرًّفة "The Noble Kaʿbah), al-Baytu l-ʿAtīq (البيت العتيق "The Primordial House"), or al-Baytu l-Ḥarām (البيت الحرام "The Sacred House")
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV p. 317
  3. ^ "In pictures: Hajj pilgrimage". BBC News. December 7, 2008. Retrieved December 8, 2008.
  4. ^ altmuslim – As Hajj begins, more changes and challenges in store
  5. ^ Peterson, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge.
  6. ^ a b Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an p. 76
  7. ^ "'House of God' Kaaba gets new cloth". The Age Company Ltd. 2003. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
  8. ^ "The Kiswa – (Kaaba Covering)". Al-Islaah Publications. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
  9. ^ Diane Morgan (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, p. 83.
  10. ^ al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 2, Book 26, Number 667.
  11. ^ Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-x. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  12. ^ "AL-BAQARA (THE COW)". Online Quran Project. Retrieved 2009-04-08.
  13. ^ Hajj-e-Baytullah. "Baytullah – The House of Allah". Retrieved August 13, 2006.
  14. ^ Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, vol. 1, pp. 58–66
  15. ^ Grunebaum, p. 18
  16. ^ a b Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV p. 318 (1927, 1978)
  17. ^ Grunebaum, p. 19
  18. ^ Karen Armstrong (2000,2002). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Imoti, Eiichi. "The Ka'ba-i Zardušt", Orient, XV (1979), The Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, pp. 65–69.
  20. ^ Grunebaum, p. 24
  21. ^ Armstrong, Jerusalem, p. 221
  22. ^ "Ask the Globe". Boston Globe. April 23, 1999.
  23. ^ Alladin, Bilkiz. Story Of Mohammad The Prophet. p. 9. ISBN 8170101638.
  24. ^ Hafiz Ghulam Sarwar. Muhammad the Holy Prophet. pp. 18–19.
  25. ^ Brother Andrew. "Hubal, the moon god of the Kaba". bible.ca. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
  26. ^ Armstrong, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, p. 221-222
  27. ^ Template:Edward Gibbon (Introduction by Christopher Dawson), Gibbon's Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume V, Everyman's Library, London, pp. 223-224.
  28. ^ Crone, Patricia (2004). Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) pp. 134–137
  29. ^ http://www.sultan.org/books/Patricia_crone_english_reply.pdf
  30. ^ http://www.sultan.org/books/Patricia_crone_english_reply.pdf
  31. ^ Template:G E Von Grunebaum, Classical Islam: A History 600-1258, George Allen & Unwin Limited, 1970, p. 19.
  32. ^ Crone, Patricia (2004). Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) p. 137
  33. ^ Britannica 2002 Deluxe Edition CD-ROM, "Ka'bah."
  34. ^ a b University of Southern California. "The Prophet of Islam – His Biography". Retrieved August 12, 2006.
  35. ^ http://www.mocaz.com/essays/Persecution%20in%20Mecca.pdf
  36. ^ Sahih Al-Bukhari Book 59, Hadith 584
  37. ^ Ashraf, Shahid. 2004. Encyclopaedia of Holy Prophet and Companions, page 357. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. ISBN 8126119403, 9788126119400
  38. ^ Singh. Longman History & Civics ICSE 7, page 9. Pearson Education India. ISBN 8131728870, 9788131728871
  39. ^ a b The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present. Viscount Bryce (Introduction). The Grolier Society. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  40. ^ Guillaume, A. (1955). The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) pp. 84–87
  41. ^ Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, translated by Issam Diab (1979). "Muhammad's Birth and Forty Years prior to Prophethood". Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Memoirs of the Noble Prophet. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
  42. ^ Cyril Glasse, New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 245. Rowman Altamira, 2001. ISBN 0759101906
  43. ^ Sahih Bukhari 1506, 1508;Sahih Muslim 1333
  44. ^ Sahih Bukhari 1509; Sahih Muslim 1333
  45. ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. The Rituals of Hajj and ‘Umrah, Mizan, Al-Mawrid
  46. ^ Central Bank of Iran. Banknotes & Coins: 2000 Rials. – Retrieved on 24 March 2009.
  47. ^ enc.slider.com/Enc/Kaaba
  48. ^ Islam Online.net – Saudi Arabia Readies for Hajj Emergencies (December 29 2005), Retrieved November 30, 2006.

References

  • Peterson, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture London: Routledge.
  • Hawting, G.R; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
  • Elliott, Jeri (1992). Your Door to Arabia. ISBN 0-473-01546-3.
  • Mohamed, Mamdouh N. (1996). Hajj to Umrah: From A to Z. Amana Publications. ISBN 0-915957-54-x.
  • Wensinck, A. J; Ka`ba. Encyclopaedia of Islam IV
  • Karen Armstrong (2000,2002). Islam: A Short History. ISBN 0-8129-6618-x.
  • Crone, Patricia (2004). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias.
  • [1915] The Book of History, a History of All Nations From the Earliest Times to the Present, Viscount Bryce (Introduction), The Grolier Society.
  • Guillaume, A. (1955). The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Grunebaum, G. E. von (1970). Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. – 1258 A.D. Aldine Publishing Company. ISBN 202-15016-X. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
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