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[[Image:Coconut oil making Seychelles.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Traditional way of making coconut oil using a [[Ox|bullock]]-powered mill in [[Seychelles]]]]
[[Image:Coconut oil making Seychelles.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Traditional way of making coconut oil using a [[Ox|bullock]]-powered mill in [[Seychelles]]]]


'''Coconut oil''' is an [[edible oil]] extracted from the kernel or meat of matured [[coconut]] harvested from the coconut palm (''[[Cocos nucifera]]''). Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat-stable, which makes it suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures like frying. Because of its stability, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content.<ref name=Fife2005>{{Cite book
'''Coconut oil''' is an [[edible oil]] extracted from the kernel or meat of matured [[coconut]] harvested from the coconut palm (''[[Cocos nucifera]]''). Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat-stable, which makes it suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures like frying. Because of its stability, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content.Nref name=Fife2005>{{Cite book | title = Coconut Cures | year = 2005 | author = Fife, Bruce | publisher = Piccadilly Books, Ltd. | pages = 184–185 | isbn = 978-0-941599-60-3 | accessdate = 2009-07-21 | postscript = <!--None--> }}</ref> The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]],<ref name = FDA/>, [[World Health Organization]],<ref name = WHO/> [[International College of Nutrition]],<ref name = ICN/> United States [[Department of Health and Human Services]],<ref name = DHHS/> [[American Dietetic Association]],<ref name=ADA/> [[American Heart Association]],<ref name = AHA/> British [[National Health Service]],<ref name = NHS/> and [[Dietitians of Canada]]<ref name=ADA/> recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat.
| title = Coconut Cures
| year = 2005
| author = Fife, Bruce
| publisher = Piccadilly Books, Ltd.
| pages = 184–185
| isbn = 978-0-941599-60-3
| accessdate = 2009-07-21
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}</ref> Numerous governmental agencies and medical organizations recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to the high saturated fat content.


== Production ==
== Production ==
Line 68: Line 59:


==Health==
==Health==
The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]],<ref name = FDA>{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | title = Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date = 2009-12-22 | accessdate = 2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[World Health Organization]],<ref name = WHO>{{cite web|title=Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241546727.pdf | format = pdf |publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=2011-04-06 }}</ref> [[International College of Nutrition]],<ref name = ICN>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002 |journal=J Cardiovasc Risk |date=1996 Dec|volume=3|issue=6|pages=489–494 |title=Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition |author=Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM |pmid=9100083}}</ref> the United States [[Department of Health and Human Services]],<ref name = DHHS>{{cite web|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|publisher=Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=17 March 2011}}</ref> [[American Dietetic Association]],<ref name=ADA>{{cite web |title=American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat |url=http://www.eatright.org/Media/content.aspx?id=1590&terms=coconut+oil |publisher= [[American Dietetic Association]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[American Heart Association]],<ref name = AHA>{{cite web |title=Tropical Oils |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Tropical-Oils_UCM_306031_Article.jsp |publisher=[[American Heart Association]] | accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> British [[National Health Service]],<ref name = NHS>{{cite web |title=Lower your cholesterol |url=http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/healthyhearts/pages/cholesterol.aspx|publisher=[[National Health Service]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> and [[Dietitians of Canada]]<ref name=ADA/> recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. Advocacy against coconut and palm oils in the 1970s and 80s due to their perceived danger as a saturated fat caused companies to instead substitute [[trans fat]]s, unaware of their health-damaging effects.<ref>{{cite pmid | 20823485 }}</ref>
The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | title = Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date = 2009-12-22 | accessdate = 2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[World Health Organization]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241546727.pdf | format = pdf |publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=2011-04-06 }}</ref> [[International College of Nutrition]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002 |journal=J Cardiovasc Risk |date=1996 Dec|volume=3|issue=6|pages=489–494 |title=Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition |author=Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM |pmid=9100083}}</ref> the United States [[Department of Health and Human Services]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|publisher=Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=17 March 2011}}</ref> [[American Dietetic Association]],<ref name=ADA>{{cite web |title=American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat |url=http://www.eatright.org/Media/content.aspx?id=1590&terms=coconut+oil |publisher= [[American Dietetic Association]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[American Heart Association]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Oils |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Tropical-Oils_UCM_306031_Article.jsp |publisher=[[American Heart Association]] | accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> British [[National Health Service]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Lower your cholesterol |url=http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/healthyhearts/pages/cholesterol.aspx|publisher=[[National Health Service]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> and [[Dietitians of Canada]]<ref name=ADA/> recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. Advocacy against coconut and palm oils in the 1970s and 80s due to their perceived danger as a saturated fat caused companies to instead substitute [[trans fat]]s, unaware of their health-damaging effects.<ref>{{cite pmid | 20823485 }}</ref>


Coconut oil contains a large proportion of [[lauric acid]], a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of [[high-density lipoprotein]] cholesterol<ref name=Mensink /> that is also found in significant amounts in [[breast milk]] and [[sebaceous gland]] secretions.<ref name = Amarasiri>{{cite journal |author=Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS |title=Coconut fats |journal=Ceylon Med J |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=47–51 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=17180807 |doi= |url=}}</ref> This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.<ref name=Mensink>{{cite journal |author=Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB |title=Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1146–55 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12716665 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full.pdf+html | format = pdf}}</ref> Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated vegetable oil]] when solid fats are required.<ref name=Tarrago>{{cite journal |last1=Tarrago-Trani |first1=MT |last2=Phillips |first2=KM |last3=Lemar |first3=LE |last4=Holden |first4=JM |title=New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=867–880 |year=2006 |pmid=16720128 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010 | url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Articles/JADA106_867-880.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref> In addition, virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of [[medium-chain triglycerides]],<ref>{{cite pmid | 3519928 }}</ref> which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.<ref name=Tarrago/><ref name=Marina>{{cite journal | last = Marina | first = AM | coauthors = Che Man YB; Amin I | year = 2009 | title = Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume = 20 | issue = 10 | pages = 481–487 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003}}</ref> Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated]] coconut oil, which creates [[trans fat]]s, and not virgin coconut oil, which has a different health risk profile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kintanar |first=QL |year=1988 |title=Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature | journal = Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology ([[Philippines]])|volume=10 |pages=371–414 }}</ref>
Coconut oil contains a large proportion of [[lauric acid]], a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of [[high-density lipoprotein]] cholesterol<ref name=Mensink /> that is also found in significant amounts in [[breast milk]] and [[sebaceous gland]] secretions.<ref name = Amarasiri>{{cite journal |author=Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS |title=Coconut fats |journal=Ceylon Med J |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=47–51 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=17180807 |doi= |url=}}</ref> This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.<ref name=Mensink>{{cite journal |author=Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB |title=Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1146–55 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12716665 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full.pdf+html | format = pdf}}</ref> Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated vegetable oil]] when solid fats are required.<ref name=Tarrago>{{cite journal |last1=Tarrago-Trani |first1=MT |last2=Phillips |first2=KM |last3=Lemar |first3=LE |last4=Holden |first4=JM |title=New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=867–880 |year=2006 |pmid=16720128 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010 | url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Articles/JADA106_867-880.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref> In addition, virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of [[medium-chain triglycerides]],<ref>{{cite pmid | 3519928 }}</ref> which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.<ref name=Tarrago/><ref name=Marina>{{cite journal | last = Marina | first = AM | coauthors = Che Man YB; Amin I | year = 2009 | title = Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume = 20 | issue = 10 | pages = 481–487 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003}}</ref> Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated]] coconut oil, which creates [[trans fat]]s, and not virgin coconut oil, which has a different health risk profile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kintanar |first=QL |year=1988 |title=Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature | journal = Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology ([[Philippines]])|volume=10 |pages=371–414 }}</ref>

Revision as of 16:43, 2 September 2011

Traditional way of making coconut oil using a bullock-powered mill in Seychelles

Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat-stable, which makes it suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures like frying. Because of its stability, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content.Nref name=Fife2005>Fife, Bruce (2005). Coconut Cures. Piccadilly Books, Ltd. pp. 184–185. ISBN 978-0-941599-60-3. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)</ref> The United States Food and Drug Administration,[1], World Health Organization,[2] International College of Nutrition,[3] United States Department of Health and Human Services,[4] American Dietetic Association,[5] American Heart Association,[6] British National Health Service,[7] and Dietitians of Canada[5] recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat.

Production

Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. Dry processing requires the meat to be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra.[8] The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract the protein from the mash. The preparation and storage of copra often occurs in unhygienic conditions, which results in a poor-quality oil that requires refining before consumption. A considerable portion of the oil extracted from copra is lost due to spoilage, due to consumption by insects and rodents, and during the extraction process. All-wet process involves raw coconut rather than dried copra, using the protein in the coconut to create an emulsion of the oil and water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done through lengthy boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical; modern techniques use centrifuges and various pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10-15% lower yield, even compared to the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also require an expensive investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.[9]

Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extracted product. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.[10] Conventional coconut oil uses hexane to extract up to 10% more oil than just using rotary mills and expellers. The oil is then refined to remove certain free fatty acids, in order to reduce susceptibility rancidification. Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to 130–150 °C (266–302 °F) and adding salt or citric acid.[11] Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut meat, milk or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves removing the shell and washing, then either wet-milling or drying the residue and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10-12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36-48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.[11]

A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 8,640 kilograms (19,050 lb) yields around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.[12]

RBD

Coconuts sundried in Kozhikode, Kerala for making copra, which is used for making coconut oil
Coconut oil expelled from Copra at an oil mill in Tripunithura, Kerala, India

RBD stands for "refined, bleached, and deodorized." RBD oil is usually made from copra (dried coconut kernel).

The dried copra is placed in a powerful hydraulic press with added heat, and the oil is extracted. This yields up practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut.[13]

This "crude" coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.

Another method for extraction of a "high-quality" coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases, and proteases on diluted coconut paste.[14]

Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.

Hydrogenation

RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 76 °F (24 °C), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates, so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 97–104 °F (36–40 °C).

In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In this process, some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.

If hydrogenation is taken to completion (i.e., the oil is "fully hydrogenated"), there are no trans fats remaining. There are no "natural" cis fats, either. Only partial hydrogenation produces trans fats.

Fractionation

Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium-chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium-chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets.

Figures

The United States Department of Agriculture has published estimated production figures for coconut oil as follows; tabulated years are from October 1 through September 30:[15]

World Coconut Oil Production - Year  2005–06   2006–07   2007–08   2008–09   2009–10   2010–11 
Production, Million Metric Tons  5.91 5.42 5.79 5.62 6.60 6.24

Coconut oil makes up around 2.5% of world vegetable oil production.

Standards

The World Health Organization's Codex Alimentarius guidelines on food, food production and food safety, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, includes standards for commercial partners who produce coconut oil for human consumption.[16] The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 17 members produce about 90% of the coconut sold commercially,[17] has published its standards for virgin coconut oil (virgin coconut oil is obtained by fresh, mature coconut kernel through means which do not "lead to alteration of the oil).[18]

Health

The United States Food and Drug Administration,[19] World Health Organization,[20] International College of Nutrition,[21] the United States Department of Health and Human Services,[22] American Dietetic Association,[5] American Heart Association,[23] British National Health Service,[24] and Dietitians of Canada[5] recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. Advocacy against coconut and palm oils in the 1970s and 80s due to their perceived danger as a saturated fat caused companies to instead substitute trans fats, unaware of their health-damaging effects.[25]

Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol[26] that is also found in significant amounts in breast milk and sebaceous gland secretions.[27] This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.[26] Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to partially hydrogenated vegetable oil when solid fats are required.[28] In addition, virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of medium-chain triglycerides,[29] which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.[28][30] Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used partially hydrogenated coconut oil, which creates trans fats, and not virgin coconut oil, which has a different health risk profile.[31]

A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent tungiasis-causing sand fleas from invading the body.[32]

Uses

In food

Coconut oil
Fractionated coconut oil
Nutritional value per 100g
Energy3,607 kJ (862 kcal)
100
Saturated86.5
Monounsaturated5.8
Polyunsaturated1.8
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin E
1%
0.09 mg
Vitamin K
0%
0.5 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
0%
0.04 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[33] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[34]
Solidified "coconut butter" sold by a Norwegian company

Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying and is a common flavor in many South Asian curries. In recent years, virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It was described in a New York Times article as having a "haunting, nutty, vanilla flavor" that also has a touch of sweetness that works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.[35] Coconut oil is used by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn, adding a large amount of saturated fat in the process.[36] Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, which is converted to monolaurin in the body, a fat found otherwise only in human breast milk.[37] It is also often used in infant formula.[38] Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods.[28]

Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers, and snack foods including popcorn. Hydrogenated coconut oil is also sold in Australia under the brand-name Copha and is the main ingredient in Australian snacks such as Chocolate crackles and White Christmas.

The smoke point of coconut oil is 138 °C (280 °F).[39]

Industry

See also: Vegetable oil used as fuel

Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to be used as a diesel engine fuel. In this manner, it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is possible only in temperate climates, as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil must meet the Weihenstephan standard[40][better source needed] for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel, otherwise moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine.

The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.[41][better source needed] Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.[42] Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific, though to date it appears it is not useful as a fuel source due to the cost of labour and supply constraints.[43]

Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant[44] and a transformer oil.[45]

Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides.[46]

Personal uses

File:Omega-Nutrition-Coconut-Oil-3060.jpg
Coconut oil is sold in cylindrical containers rather than bottles due to its inability to be poured

Coconut oil can be used as a skin moisturizer, helping with dry skin[47] and reduces protein loss when used in hair.[48]

Though it can be used as a sexual lubricant, it will weaken latex condoms.[49]

Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as Cochin oil.[50]

Coconut oil is an important base ingredient for the manufacture of soap. Soap made with coconut oil tends to be hard although it retains more water than those made with other oils and therefore increases manufacturer yields. It is more soluble in hard water and salt water than other soaps allowing it to lather more easily.[51] A basic coconut oil soap is clear when melted and a bright white when hardened.[52]

See also

References

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference FDA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference WHO was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference ICN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference DHHS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c d "American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference AHA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NHS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Grimwood, BE (1975). Coconut Palm Products – Their processing in developing countries. Rome: FAO. pp. 49–56. ISBN 9789251008539. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Grimwood et al., 1975, p. 193-210.
  10. ^ Grimwood et al., 1975, p. 29.
  11. ^ a b Kurian (2007). Commercial Crops Technology: Vol.08. Horticulture Science Series. New India Publishing. pp. 202–6. ISBN 8189422529. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Bourke, RM (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. Australian National University. pp. 327n2. ISBN 9781921536601. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Foale, M. (2003). "The Coconut Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities of the Tree of Life" (pdf). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 115–116.
  14. ^ McGlone OC, Canales A, Carter JV (1986). "Coconut oil extraction by a new enzymatic process". J Food Sci. 51 (3): 695–697. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13914.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ "Table 19: World: Palm Oil, Coconut Oil, and Fish Meal Supply and Distribution" (pdf). United States Department of Agriculture. 2011-04-08. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
  16. ^ "Codex Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (Codex Stan 210-1999, Revision 3)" (pdf). Codex Alimentarius. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2009. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
  17. ^ "About us". Asian and Pacific Coconut Community. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
  18. ^ "APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil" (pdf). Jakarta, Indonesia: Asian and Pacific Coconut Community. 2003. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
  19. ^ "Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat". Food and Drug Administration. 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  20. ^ "Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes" (pdf). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2011-04-06.
  21. ^ Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM (1996 Dec). "Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition". J Cardiovasc Risk. 3 (6): 489–494. doi:10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002. PMID 9100083. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" (PDF). Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  23. ^ "Tropical Oils". American Heart Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  24. ^ "Lower your cholesterol". National Health Service. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  25. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 20823485 , please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid= 20823485 instead.
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Further reading

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