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'''Myosatellite cells''', also known as '''satellite cells''' or '''muscle stem cells''', are small [[multipotent]] cells with very little [[cytoplasm]] found in mature [[muscle]].<ref name="ReferenceBirbrair2015">{{cite journal |title=Pericytes are Essential for Skeletal Muscle Formation |year=2015 |last1=Birbrair |first1=A. |last2=Delbono |first2=O. |journal=Stem Cell Reviews and Reports|volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=547–548 | pmid = 25896402 | doi = 10.1007/s12015-015-9588-6 }}</ref> Satellite cells are precursors to [[skeletal muscle]] cells, able to give rise to satellite cells or differentiated skeletal muscle cells.<ref name="rep1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadi F, Charifi N, Denis C, Lexell J, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Olsen S, Kjaer M | title = The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: what have we learned from human studies? | journal = Pflügers Arch. | volume = 451 | issue = 2 | pages = 319–27 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16091958 | doi = 10.1007/s00424-005-1406-6 }}</ref> They have the potential to provide additional [[myonuclei]] to their parent muscle fiber, or return to a [[wikt:quiescence|quiescent]] state.<ref name="kadi2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadi F, Schjerling P, Andersen LL, Charifi N, Madsen JL, Christensen LR, Andersen JL | title = The effects of heavy resistance training and detraining on satellite cells in human skeletal muscles | journal = J. Physiol. (Lond.) | volume = 558 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 1005–12 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15218062 | pmc = 1665027 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.065904 }}</ref> More specifically, upon activation, satellite cells can re-enter the cell cycle to proliferate and differentiate into [[myoblast]]s.<ref name="pmid21798086">{{cite journal | vauthors = Siegel AL, Kuhlmann PK, Cornelison DD | title = Muscle satellite cell proliferation and association: new insights from myofiber time-lapse imaging | journal = Skeletal Muscle | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 7 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21798086 | pmc = 3157006 | doi = 10.1186/2044-5040-1-7 }}</ref>
'''Myosatellite cells''', also known as '''satellite cells''' or '''muscle stem cells''', are small [[multipotent]] cells with very little [[cytoplasm]] found in mature [[muscle]].<ref name="ReferenceBirbrair2015">{{cite journal |title=Pericytes are Essential for Skeletal Muscle Formation |year=2015 |last1=Birbrair |first1=A. |last2=Delbono |first2=O. |journal=Stem Cell Reviews and Reports|volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=547–548 | pmid = 25896402 | doi = 10.1007/s12015-015-9588-6 }}</ref> Satellite cells are precursors to [[skeletal muscle]] cells, able to give rise to satellite cells or differentiated skeletal muscle cells.<ref name="rep1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadi F, Charifi N, Denis C, Lexell J, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Olsen S, Kjaer M | title = The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: what have we learned from human studies? | journal = Pflügers Arch. | volume = 451 | issue = 2 | pages = 319–27 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16091958 | doi = 10.1007/s00424-005-1406-6 }}</ref> They have the potential to provide additional [[myonuclei]] to their parent muscle fiber, or return to a [[wikt:quiescence|quiescent]] state.<ref name="kadi2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kadi F, Schjerling P, Andersen LL, Charifi N, Madsen JL, Christensen LR, Andersen JL | title = The effects of heavy resistance training and detraining on satellite cells in human skeletal muscles | journal = J. Physiol. (Lond.) | volume = 558 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 1005–12 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15218062 | pmc = 1665027 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.065904 }}</ref> More specifically, upon activation, satellite cells can re-enter the cell cycle to proliferate and differentiate into [[myoblast]]s.<ref name="pmid21798086">{{cite journal | vauthors = Siegel AL, Kuhlmann PK, Cornelison DD | title = Muscle satellite cell proliferation and association: new insights from myofiber time-lapse imaging | journal = Skeletal Muscle | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 7 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21798086 | pmc = 3157006 | doi = 10.1186/2044-5040-1-7 }}</ref>


Myosatellite cells are located between the [[basement membrane]] and the [[sarcolemma]] of muscle fibers,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zammit|first1=PS|last2=Partridge|first2=TA|last3=Yablonka-Reuveni|first3=Z|title=The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold.|journal=Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry|date=November 2006|volume=54|issue=11|pages=1177–91|pmid=16899758|doi=10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006}}</ref> and can lie in grooves either parallel or transversely to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Their distribution across the fibre can vary significantly. Non-proliferative, quiescent myosatellite cells, which adjoin resting skeletal muscles, can be identified by their distinct location between sarcolemma and basal lamina, a high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio, few organelles (e.g. ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complexes), small nuclear size, and a large quantity of nuclear heterochromatin relative to myonuclei. On the other hand, activated satellite cells have an increased number of [[caveolae]], cytoplasmic organelles, and decreased levels of heterochromatin.<ref name="rep1" /> Satellite cells are able to differentiate and fuse to augment existing [[muscle fibers]] and to form new fibers. These cells represent the oldest known adult [[stem cell]] niche, and are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or [[disease]].
Myosatellite cells are located between the [[basement membrane]] and the [[sarcolemma]] of muscle fibers,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zammit|first1=PS|last2=Partridge|first2=TA|last3=Yablonka-Reuveni|first3=Z|title=The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold.|journal=Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry|date=November 2006|volume=54|issue=11|pages=1177–91|pmid=16899758|doi=10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006|doi-access=free}}</ref> and can lie in grooves either parallel or transversely to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Their distribution across the fibre can vary significantly. Non-proliferative, quiescent myosatellite cells, which adjoin resting skeletal muscles, can be identified by their distinct location between sarcolemma and basal lamina, a high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio, few organelles (e.g. ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complexes), small nuclear size, and a large quantity of nuclear heterochromatin relative to myonuclei. On the other hand, activated satellite cells have an increased number of [[caveolae]], cytoplasmic organelles, and decreased levels of heterochromatin.<ref name="rep1" /> Satellite cells are able to differentiate and fuse to augment existing [[muscle fibers]] and to form new fibers. These cells represent the oldest known adult [[stem cell]] niche, and are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or [[disease]].


In undamaged muscle, the majority of satellite cells are ''quiescent''; they neither differentiate nor undergo cell division. In response to mechanical strain, satellite cells become ''activated''. Activated satellite cells initially proliferate as skeletal [[myoblast]]s before undergoing myogenic [[Cellular differentiation|differentiation]].<ref name="ReferenceBirbrair2015"/>
In undamaged muscle, the majority of satellite cells are ''quiescent''; they neither differentiate nor undergo cell division. In response to mechanical strain, satellite cells become ''activated''. Activated satellite cells initially proliferate as skeletal [[myoblast]]s before undergoing myogenic [[Cellular differentiation|differentiation]].<ref name="ReferenceBirbrair2015"/>
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==Structure==
==Structure==
===Genetic markers===
===Genetic markers===
Satellite cells express a number of distinctive [[genetic markers]]. Current thinking is that most satellite cells express [[PAX7]] and [[PAX3]].<ref name="pmid15843801">{{cite journal | vauthors = Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M | title = A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells | journal = Nature | volume = 435 | issue = 7044 | pages = 948–53 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15843801 | doi = 10.1038/nature03594 }}</ref> Satellite cells in the head musculature have a unique developmental program,<ref name="pmid19531353">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimarães-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E | title = Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells | journal = Dev. Cell | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 822–32 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19531353 | pmc = 3684422 | doi = 10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007 }}</ref> and are Pax3-negative. Moreover, both quiescent and activated human satellite cells can be identified by the membrane-bound neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM/CD56/Leu-19), a cell-surface glycoprotein. Myocyte nuclear factor (MNF), and c-met proto-oncogene (receptor for hepatocyte growth factor ([[Hepatocyte growth factor|HGF]])) are less commonly used markers.<ref name="rep1" />
Satellite cells express a number of distinctive [[genetic markers]]. Current thinking is that most satellite cells express [[PAX7]] and [[PAX3]].<ref name="pmid15843801">{{cite journal | vauthors = Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M | title = A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells | journal = Nature | volume = 435 | issue = 7044 | pages = 948–53 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15843801 | doi = 10.1038/nature03594 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0012-E8E0-9 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Satellite cells in the head musculature have a unique developmental program,<ref name="pmid19531353">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimarães-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E | title = Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells | journal = Dev. Cell | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 822–32 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19531353 | pmc = 3684422 | doi = 10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007 }}</ref> and are Pax3-negative. Moreover, both quiescent and activated human satellite cells can be identified by the membrane-bound neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM/CD56/Leu-19), a cell-surface glycoprotein. Myocyte nuclear factor (MNF), and c-met proto-oncogene (receptor for hepatocyte growth factor ([[Hepatocyte growth factor|HGF]])) are less commonly used markers.<ref name="rep1" />


[[CD34]] and [[Myf5]] markers specifically define the majority of quiescent satellite cells.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Beauchamp | first1 = JR | last2 = Heslop | first2 = L | last3 = Yu | first3 = DS | last4 = Tajbakhsh | first4 = S | last5 = Kelly | first5 = RG | last6 = Wernig | first6 = A | last7 = Buckingham | first7 = ME | last8 = Partridge | first8 = TA | last9 = Zammit | first9 = PS | year = 2000 | title = Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 151 | issue = 6| pages = 1221–34 | doi=10.1083/jcb.151.6.1221 | pmid=11121437 | pmc=2190588}}</ref> Activated satellite cells prove problematic to identify, especially as their markers change with the degree of activation; for example, greater activation results in the progressive loss of Pax7 expression as they enter the proliferative stage. However, Pax7 is expressed prominently after satellite cell differentiation.<ref name="crameri">{{cite journal | last1 = Crameri | first1 = R | last2 = Aagaard | first2 = P | last3 = Qvortrup | first3 = K | last4 = Kjaer | first4 = M | year = 2004 | title = N-CAM and Pax7 immunoreactive cells are expressed differently in the human vastus lateralis after a single bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise | url = | journal = J Physiol | volume = 565 | issue = | page = 165 }}</ref> Greater activation also results in increased expression of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors [[MyoD]], [[myogenin]], and [[MRF4]] – all responsible for the induction of myocyte-specific genes.<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1002/stem.1248 | pmid=23034923 | title=CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein Beta is Expressed in Satellite Cells and Controls Myogenesis | journal=Stem Cells | date=2012 | volume=30 | issue=12 | pages=2619–2630 | first=François | last=Marchildon}}</ref> HGF testing is also used to identify active satellite cells.<ref name="rep1" /> Activated satellite cells also begin expressing muscle-specific filament proteins such as [[desmin]] as they differentiate.
[[CD34]] and [[Myf5]] markers specifically define the majority of quiescent satellite cells.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Beauchamp | first1 = JR | last2 = Heslop | first2 = L | last3 = Yu | first3 = DS | last4 = Tajbakhsh | first4 = S | last5 = Kelly | first5 = RG | last6 = Wernig | first6 = A | last7 = Buckingham | first7 = ME | last8 = Partridge | first8 = TA | last9 = Zammit | first9 = PS | year = 2000 | title = Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 151 | issue = 6| pages = 1221–34 | doi=10.1083/jcb.151.6.1221 | pmid=11121437 | pmc=2190588}}</ref> Activated satellite cells prove problematic to identify, especially as their markers change with the degree of activation; for example, greater activation results in the progressive loss of Pax7 expression as they enter the proliferative stage. However, Pax7 is expressed prominently after satellite cell differentiation.<ref name="crameri">{{cite journal | last1 = Crameri | first1 = R | last2 = Aagaard | first2 = P | last3 = Qvortrup | first3 = K | last4 = Kjaer | first4 = M | year = 2004 | title = N-CAM and Pax7 immunoreactive cells are expressed differently in the human vastus lateralis after a single bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise | url = | journal = J Physiol | volume = 565 | issue = | page = 165 }}</ref> Greater activation also results in increased expression of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors [[MyoD]], [[myogenin]], and [[MRF4]] – all responsible for the induction of myocyte-specific genes.<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1002/stem.1248 | pmid=23034923 | title=CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein Beta is Expressed in Satellite Cells and Controls Myogenesis | journal=Stem Cells | date=2012 | volume=30 | issue=12 | pages=2619–2630 | first=François | last=Marchildon}}</ref> HGF testing is also used to identify active satellite cells.<ref name="rep1" /> Activated satellite cells also begin expressing muscle-specific filament proteins such as [[desmin]] as they differentiate.
Line 32: Line 32:
The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of [[muscular dystrophies]].
The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of [[muscular dystrophies]].


Satellite cells proliferate following muscle trauma<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Seale P, Polesskaya A, Rudnicki MA |title=Adult stem cell specification by Wnt signaling in muscle regeneration |journal=Cell Cycle |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=418–9 |year=2003 |pmid=12963830 |doi= 10.4161/cc.2.5.498 |url=http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/cc/abstract.php?id=498}}</ref> and form new myofibers through a process similar to fetal muscle development.<ref name=Parker03>{{cite journal |vauthors=Parker MH, Seale P, Rudnicki MA |title=Looking back to the embryo: defining transcriptional networks in adult myogenesis |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=497–507 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12838342 |doi=10.1038/nrg1109 }}</ref> After several cell divisions, the satellite cells begin to fuse with the damaged myotubes and undergo further differentiations and maturation, with peripheral nuclei as in hallmark.<ref name=Parker03/> One of the first roles described for IGF-1 was its involvement in the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. In addition, IGF-1 expression in skeletal muscle extends the capacity to activate satellite cell proliferation (Charkravarthy, et al., 2000), increasing and prolonging the beneficial effects to the aging muscle.
Satellite cells proliferate following muscle trauma<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Seale P, Polesskaya A, Rudnicki MA |title=Adult stem cell specification by Wnt signaling in muscle regeneration |journal=Cell Cycle |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=418–9 |year=2003 |pmid=12963830 |doi= 10.4161/cc.2.5.498 |url=http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/cc/abstract.php?id=498|doi-access=free }}</ref> and form new myofibers through a process similar to fetal muscle development.<ref name=Parker03>{{cite journal |vauthors=Parker MH, Seale P, Rudnicki MA |title=Looking back to the embryo: defining transcriptional networks in adult myogenesis |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=497–507 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12838342 |doi=10.1038/nrg1109 }}</ref> After several cell divisions, the satellite cells begin to fuse with the damaged myotubes and undergo further differentiations and maturation, with peripheral nuclei as in hallmark.<ref name=Parker03/> One of the first roles described for IGF-1 was its involvement in the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. In addition, IGF-1 expression in skeletal muscle extends the capacity to activate satellite cell proliferation (Charkravarthy, et al., 2000), increasing and prolonging the beneficial effects to the aging muscle.
<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N |title=IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration |journal=Trends Immunol. |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=535–42 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16109502 |doi=10.1016/j.it.2005.08.002 |url= }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N |title=IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration |journal=Trends Immunol. |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=535–42 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16109502 |doi=10.1016/j.it.2005.08.002 |url= }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hawke TJ, Garry DJ |title=Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=534–51 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11457764 |doi=10.1152/jappl.2001.91.2.534}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hawke TJ, Garry DJ |title=Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=534–51 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11457764 |doi=10.1152/jappl.2001.91.2.534}}</ref>
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Human studies have shown that both high resistance training and endurance training have yielded an increased number of satellite cells.<ref name="crameri" /><ref name="pmid12811778">{{cite journal | vauthors = Charifi N, Kadi F, Féasson L, Denis C | title = Effects of endurance training on satellite cell frequency in skeletal muscle of old men | journal = Muscle Nerve | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–92 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12811778 | doi = 10.1002/mus.10394 }}</ref> These results suggest that a light, endurance training regimen may be useful to counteract the age-correlated satellite cell decrease.<ref name="rep1" /> In high-resistance training, activation and proliferation of satellite cells are evidenced by increased [[cyclin D1]] mRNA, and [[p21]] mRNA levels. This is consistent with the fact that cyclin D1 and p21 upregulation correlates to division and differentiation of cells.<ref name="kadi2" />
Human studies have shown that both high resistance training and endurance training have yielded an increased number of satellite cells.<ref name="crameri" /><ref name="pmid12811778">{{cite journal | vauthors = Charifi N, Kadi F, Féasson L, Denis C | title = Effects of endurance training on satellite cell frequency in skeletal muscle of old men | journal = Muscle Nerve | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–92 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12811778 | doi = 10.1002/mus.10394 }}</ref> These results suggest that a light, endurance training regimen may be useful to counteract the age-correlated satellite cell decrease.<ref name="rep1" /> In high-resistance training, activation and proliferation of satellite cells are evidenced by increased [[cyclin D1]] mRNA, and [[p21]] mRNA levels. This is consistent with the fact that cyclin D1 and p21 upregulation correlates to division and differentiation of cells.<ref name="kadi2" />


Satellite cell activation has also been demonstrated on an ultrastructural level following exercise. [[Aerobic exercise|Aerobic]] exercise has been shown to significantly increase granular [[endoplasmic reticulum]], free ribosomes, and mitochondria of the stimulated muscle groups. Additionally, satellite cells have been shown to fuse with muscle fibers, developing new muscle fibers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Appell | first1 = HJ | last2 = Forsberg | first2 = S | last3 = Hollmann | first3 = W | year = 1988 | title = Satellite cell activation in human skeletal muscle after training: evidence for muscle fiber neoformation | url = | journal = Int J Sports Med | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 297–99 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-1025026| pmid = 3182162 }}</ref> Other ultrastructural evidence for activated satellite cells include increased concentration of Golgi apparatus and pinocytotic vesicles.<ref name="pmid11382785">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roth SM, Martel GF, Ivey FM, Lemmer JT, Tracy BL, Metter EJ, Hurley BF, Rogers MA | title = Skeletal muscle satellite cell characteristics in young and older men and women after heavy resistance strength training | journal = J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = B240–7 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11382785 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/56.6.B240 }}</ref>
Satellite cell activation has also been demonstrated on an ultrastructural level following exercise. [[Aerobic exercise|Aerobic]] exercise has been shown to significantly increase granular [[endoplasmic reticulum]], free ribosomes, and mitochondria of the stimulated muscle groups. Additionally, satellite cells have been shown to fuse with muscle fibers, developing new muscle fibers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Appell | first1 = HJ | last2 = Forsberg | first2 = S | last3 = Hollmann | first3 = W | year = 1988 | title = Satellite cell activation in human skeletal muscle after training: evidence for muscle fiber neoformation | url = | journal = Int J Sports Med | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 297–99 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-1025026| pmid = 3182162 }}</ref> Other ultrastructural evidence for activated satellite cells include increased concentration of Golgi apparatus and pinocytotic vesicles.<ref name="pmid11382785">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roth SM, Martel GF, Ivey FM, Lemmer JT, Tracy BL, Metter EJ, Hurley BF, Rogers MA | title = Skeletal muscle satellite cell characteristics in young and older men and women after heavy resistance strength training | journal = J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = B240–7 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11382785 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/56.6.B240 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


==Research==
==Research==

Revision as of 21:38, 11 April 2020

For the glial progenitor cells, see Satellite cell (glial).
Myosatellite cell
Details
Identifiers
Latinmyosatellitocytusy
MeSHD032496
THH2.00.05.2.01020
Anatomical terms of microanatomy

Myosatellite cells, also known as satellite cells or muscle stem cells, are small multipotent cells with very little cytoplasm found in mature muscle.[1] Satellite cells are precursors to skeletal muscle cells, able to give rise to satellite cells or differentiated skeletal muscle cells.[2] They have the potential to provide additional myonuclei to their parent muscle fiber, or return to a quiescent state.[3] More specifically, upon activation, satellite cells can re-enter the cell cycle to proliferate and differentiate into myoblasts.[4]

Myosatellite cells are located between the basement membrane and the sarcolemma of muscle fibers,[5] and can lie in grooves either parallel or transversely to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Their distribution across the fibre can vary significantly. Non-proliferative, quiescent myosatellite cells, which adjoin resting skeletal muscles, can be identified by their distinct location between sarcolemma and basal lamina, a high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio, few organelles (e.g. ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complexes), small nuclear size, and a large quantity of nuclear heterochromatin relative to myonuclei. On the other hand, activated satellite cells have an increased number of caveolae, cytoplasmic organelles, and decreased levels of heterochromatin.[2] Satellite cells are able to differentiate and fuse to augment existing muscle fibers and to form new fibers. These cells represent the oldest known adult stem cell niche, and are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or disease.

In undamaged muscle, the majority of satellite cells are quiescent; they neither differentiate nor undergo cell division. In response to mechanical strain, satellite cells become activated. Activated satellite cells initially proliferate as skeletal myoblasts before undergoing myogenic differentiation.[1]

Structure

Genetic markers

Satellite cells express a number of distinctive genetic markers. Current thinking is that most satellite cells express PAX7 and PAX3.[6] Satellite cells in the head musculature have a unique developmental program,[7] and are Pax3-negative. Moreover, both quiescent and activated human satellite cells can be identified by the membrane-bound neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM/CD56/Leu-19), a cell-surface glycoprotein. Myocyte nuclear factor (MNF), and c-met proto-oncogene (receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)) are less commonly used markers.[2]

CD34 and Myf5 markers specifically define the majority of quiescent satellite cells.[8] Activated satellite cells prove problematic to identify, especially as their markers change with the degree of activation; for example, greater activation results in the progressive loss of Pax7 expression as they enter the proliferative stage. However, Pax7 is expressed prominently after satellite cell differentiation.[9] Greater activation also results in increased expression of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors MyoD, myogenin, and MRF4 – all responsible for the induction of myocyte-specific genes.[10] HGF testing is also used to identify active satellite cells.[2] Activated satellite cells also begin expressing muscle-specific filament proteins such as desmin as they differentiate.

The field of satellite cell biology suffers from the same technical difficulties as other stem cell fields. Studies rely almost exclusively on Flow cytometry and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, which gives no information about cell lineage or behaviour. As such, the satellite cell niche is relatively ill-defined and it is likely that it consists of multiple sub-populations.

Function

Muscle repair

When muscle cells undergo injury, quiescent satellite cells are released from beneath the basement membrane. They become activated and re-enter the cell cycle. These dividing cells are known as the "transit amplifying pool" before undergoing myogenic differentiation to form new (post-mitotic) myotubes. There is also evidence suggesting that these cells are capable of fusing with existing myofibers to facilitate growth and repair.[1]

The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of muscular dystrophies.

Satellite cells proliferate following muscle trauma[11] and form new myofibers through a process similar to fetal muscle development.[12] After several cell divisions, the satellite cells begin to fuse with the damaged myotubes and undergo further differentiations and maturation, with peripheral nuclei as in hallmark.[12] One of the first roles described for IGF-1 was its involvement in the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. In addition, IGF-1 expression in skeletal muscle extends the capacity to activate satellite cell proliferation (Charkravarthy, et al., 2000), increasing and prolonging the beneficial effects to the aging muscle. [13] [14]

Effects of exercise

Satellite cell activation is measured by the extent of proliferation and differentiation. Typically, satellite cell content is expressed per muscle fiber or as a percentage of total nuclear content, the sum of satellite cell nuclei and myonuclei. While the adaptive response to exercise largely varies on an individual basis on factors such as genetics, age, diet, acclimatization to exercise, and exercise volume, human studies have demonstrated general trends.[2]

It is suggested that exercise triggers the release of signaling molecules including inflammatory substances, cytokines and growth factors from surrounding connective tissues and active skeletal muscles.[2] Notably, HGF, a cytokine, is transferred from the extracellular matrix into muscles through the nitric-oxide dependent pathway. It is thought that HGF activates satellite cells, while insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) enhance satellite cell proliferation rate following activation.[15] Studies have demonstrated that intense exercise generally increases IGF-1 production, though individual responses vary significantly.[16][17] More specifically, IGF-1 exists in two isoforms: mechano growth factor (MGF) and IGF-IEa.[18] While the former induces activation and proliferation, the latter causes differentiation of proliferating satellite cells.[18]

Human studies have shown that both high resistance training and endurance training have yielded an increased number of satellite cells.[9][19] These results suggest that a light, endurance training regimen may be useful to counteract the age-correlated satellite cell decrease.[2] In high-resistance training, activation and proliferation of satellite cells are evidenced by increased cyclin D1 mRNA, and p21 mRNA levels. This is consistent with the fact that cyclin D1 and p21 upregulation correlates to division and differentiation of cells.[3]

Satellite cell activation has also been demonstrated on an ultrastructural level following exercise. Aerobic exercise has been shown to significantly increase granular endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, and mitochondria of the stimulated muscle groups. Additionally, satellite cells have been shown to fuse with muscle fibers, developing new muscle fibers.[20] Other ultrastructural evidence for activated satellite cells include increased concentration of Golgi apparatus and pinocytotic vesicles.[21]

Research

Upon minimal stimulation, satellite cells in vitro or in vivo will undergo a myogenic differentiation program.

Unfortunately, it seems that transplanted satellite cells have a limited capacity for migration, and are only able to regenerate muscle in the region of the delivery site. As such, systemic treatments or even the treatment of an entire muscle in this way is not possible. However, other cells in the body such as pericytes and hematopoietic stem cells have all been shown to be able to contribute to muscle repair in a similar manner to the endogenous satellite cell. The advantage of using these cell types for therapy in muscle diseases is that they can be systemically delivered, autonomously migrating to the site of injury. Particularly successful recently has been the delivery of mesoangioblast cells into the Golden Retriever dog model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which effectively cured the disease.[22] However, the sample size used was relatively small and the study has since been criticized for a lack of appropriate controls for the use of immunosuppressive drugs. Recently, it has been reported that Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair by adopting a fibrotic phenotype through a Wnt/β-catenin mediated process.[23]

Regulation

Little is known of the regulation of satellite cells. Whilst together PAX3 and PAX7 currently form the definitive satellite markers, Pax genes are notoriously poor transcriptional activators. The dynamics of activation and quiesence and the induction of the myogenic program through the myogenic regulatory factors, Myf5, MyoD, myogenin, and MRF4 remains to be determined.

There is some research indicating that satellite cells are negatively regulated by a protein called myostatin. Increased levels of myostatin up-regulate a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor called p21 and thereby inhibit the differentiation of satellite cells.[24]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Birbrair, A.; Delbono, O. (2015). "Pericytes are Essential for Skeletal Muscle Formation". Stem Cell Reviews and Reports. 11 (4): 547–548. doi:10.1007/s12015-015-9588-6. PMID 25896402.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Kadi F, Charifi N, Denis C, Lexell J, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Olsen S, Kjaer M (November 2005). "The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: what have we learned from human studies?". Pflügers Arch. 451 (2): 319–27. doi:10.1007/s00424-005-1406-6. PMID 16091958.
  3. ^ a b Kadi F, Schjerling P, Andersen LL, Charifi N, Madsen JL, Christensen LR, Andersen JL (August 2004). "The effects of heavy resistance training and detraining on satellite cells in human skeletal muscles". J. Physiol. (Lond.). 558 (Pt 3): 1005–12. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2004.065904. PMC 1665027. PMID 15218062.
  4. ^ Siegel AL, Kuhlmann PK, Cornelison DD (February 2011). "Muscle satellite cell proliferation and association: new insights from myofiber time-lapse imaging". Skeletal Muscle. 1 (1): 7. doi:10.1186/2044-5040-1-7. PMC 3157006. PMID 21798086.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ Zammit, PS; Partridge, TA; Yablonka-Reuveni, Z (November 2006). "The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold". Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 54 (11): 1177–91. doi:10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006. PMID 16899758.
  6. ^ Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M (June 2005). "A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells". Nature. 435 (7044): 948–53. doi:10.1038/nature03594. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-E8E0-9. PMID 15843801.
  7. ^ Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, Guimarães-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E (June 2009). "Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells". Dev. Cell. 16 (6): 822–32. doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007. PMC 3684422. PMID 19531353.
  8. ^ Beauchamp, JR; Heslop, L; Yu, DS; Tajbakhsh, S; Kelly, RG; Wernig, A; Buckingham, ME; Partridge, TA; Zammit, PS (2000). "Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells". J Cell Biol. 151 (6): 1221–34. doi:10.1083/jcb.151.6.1221. PMC 2190588. PMID 11121437.
  9. ^ a b Crameri, R; Aagaard, P; Qvortrup, K; Kjaer, M (2004). "N-CAM and Pax7 immunoreactive cells are expressed differently in the human vastus lateralis after a single bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise". J Physiol. 565: 165.
  10. ^ Marchildon, François (2012). "CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein Beta is Expressed in Satellite Cells and Controls Myogenesis". Stem Cells. 30 (12): 2619–2630. doi:10.1002/stem.1248. PMID 23034923.
  11. ^ Seale P, Polesskaya A, Rudnicki MA (2003). "Adult stem cell specification by Wnt signaling in muscle regeneration". Cell Cycle. 2 (5): 418–9. doi:10.4161/cc.2.5.498. PMID 12963830.
  12. ^ a b Parker MH, Seale P, Rudnicki MA (July 2003). "Looking back to the embryo: defining transcriptional networks in adult myogenesis". Nat. Rev. Genet. 4 (7): 497–507. doi:10.1038/nrg1109. PMID 12838342.
  13. ^ Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N (October 2005). "IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration". Trends Immunol. 26 (10): 535–42. doi:10.1016/j.it.2005.08.002. PMID 16109502.
  14. ^ Hawke TJ, Garry DJ (August 2001). "Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology". J. Appl. Physiol. 91 (2): 534–51. doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.2.534. PMID 11457764.
  15. ^ Anderson, JE; Wozniak, AC (2004). "Satellite cell activation on fibers: modeling events in vivo—an invited review". Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 82 (5): 300–10. doi:10.1139/y04-020. PMID 15213729.
  16. ^ Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, Gower BA, Hunter GR, Goodman A, McLafferty CL, Urban RJ (March 2001). "Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans". Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 280 (3): E383–90. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E383. PMID 11171591.
  17. ^ Hellsten Y, Hansson HA, Johnson L, Frandsen U, Sjödin B (June 1996). "Increased expression of xanthine oxidase and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) immunoreactivity in skeletal muscle after strenuous exercise in humans". Acta Physiol. Scand. 157 (2): 191–7. doi:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1996.492235000.x. PMID 8800359.
  18. ^ a b Yang, SY; Goldspink, G (2002). "Different roles of the IGF-I Ec peptide (MGF) and mature IGF-I in myoblast proliferation and differentiation". FEBS Lett. 522 (1–3): 156–60. doi:10.1016/s0014-5793(02)02918-6. PMID 12095637.
  19. ^ Charifi N, Kadi F, Féasson L, Denis C (July 2003). "Effects of endurance training on satellite cell frequency in skeletal muscle of old men". Muscle Nerve. 28 (1): 87–92. doi:10.1002/mus.10394. PMID 12811778.
  20. ^ Appell, HJ; Forsberg, S; Hollmann, W (1988). "Satellite cell activation in human skeletal muscle after training: evidence for muscle fiber neoformation". Int J Sports Med. 9 (4): 297–99. doi:10.1055/s-2007-1025026. PMID 3182162.
  21. ^ Roth SM, Martel GF, Ivey FM, Lemmer JT, Tracy BL, Metter EJ, Hurley BF, Rogers MA (June 2001). "Skeletal muscle satellite cell characteristics in young and older men and women after heavy resistance strength training". J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 56 (6): B240–7. doi:10.1093/gerona/56.6.B240. PMID 11382785.
  22. ^ Sampaolesi M, Blot S, D'Antona G, Granger N, Tonlorenzi R, Innocenzi A, et al. (November 2006). "Mesoangioblast stem cells ameliorate muscle function in dystrophic dogs" (PDF). Nature. 444 (7119): 574–9. doi:10.1038/nature05282. PMID 17108972.
  23. ^ Amini-Nik S, Glancy D, et al. (2011). "Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair, regulating scar size through a β-catenin mediated process". Stem Cells. 29 (9): 1371–9. doi:10.1002/stem.688. PMID 21739529.
  24. ^ McCroskery S, Thomas M, Maxwell L, Sharma M, Kambadur R (2003). "Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal". J Cell Biol. 162 (6): 1135–47. doi:10.1083/jcb.200207056. PMC 2172861. PMID 12963705.
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