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Balhae
발해/渤海/Бохай/ᡦᡠᡥᠠ‍ᡳ
698–926
The territory of Balhae in 830, during the reign of King Seon of Balhae.[1][2]
The territory of Balhae in 830, during the reign of King Seon of Balhae.[1][2]
CapitalDongmo Mountain (698–742,
in modern Dunhua)
Central Capital (742–756)
Upper Capital (756–785)
East Capital (785–793)
Upper Capital (793–926)
or Five Capital System (720-926)[3]
Common languagesTungusic languages,
Koreanic languages,
Classical Chinese
Religion
Buddhism[4][5]
Shamanism[6]
GovernmentMonarchy
King/Emperor[a] 
• 698–719
Go (first)
• 719–737
Mu
• 737–793
Mun
• 818–830
Seon
• 907–926
Dae Inseon (last)
History 
• Dae Jung-sang begins military campaigns
696
• Establishment in Tianmenling
698
• "Balhae" as a kingdom name
712
• Fall of Sang-gyeong
14 January 926
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mohe Peoples
Goguryeo
According to the Korean version Goguryeo revival movements
Liao dynasty
Dongdan
Goryeo
Later Balhae
Jurchens
Today part ofChina
North Korea
Russia
Balhae
Korean name
Hangul발해
Hanja渤海
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationBalhae
McCune–ReischauerParhae
Chinese name
Chinese渤海
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinBóhǎi
Wade–GilesPo-hai
Russian name
RussianБохай
RomanizationBohai
Manchu name
Manchu script ᡦᡠᡥᠠ‍ᡳ
RomanizationPuhai
Part of a series on the
History of Manchuria
Prehistoric period
Ancient to Classical period
Medieval to Early Modern period
Modern period
Part of a series on the
History of Korea
thum
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC
Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC
* Jeulmun
Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC
* Mumun
* Liaoning dagger
Ancient period
Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC
* Dangun
* Gija
* Wiman
Jin 4th–2nd century BC
Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period
Three Kingdoms period
Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD
Baekje 18 BC–660 AD
Silla 57 BC–935 AD
Gaya confederacy 42–562
Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660
Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period
United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892
Balhae 698–926
Little Goguryeo 699–820
Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period
Later Baekje 892–936
Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918
Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935
Later Sabeol 919–927
Dongdan Kingdom 926–936
Later Balhae 927–935
Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period
Goryeo 918–1392
Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105
Heungyo 1029–1030
Joseon 1392–1897
Korean Empire 1897–1910
Colonial period
Japanese occupation 1910–1945
Provisional Government 1919–1948
Modern period
Military governments 1945–1948
North-South division 1945–present
* North 1948–present
* South 1948–present
By topic
Timeline
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Monarchs of Korea
Balhae
  1. Go 698–719
  2. Mu 719–737
  3. Mun 737–793
  4. Dae Won-ui 793
  5. Seong 793–794
  6. Gang 794–809
  7. Jeong 809–812
  8. Hui 812–817
  9. Gan 817–818
  10. Seon 818–830
  11. Dae Ijin 830–857
  12. Dae Geonhwang 857–871
  13. Dae Hyeonseok 871–894
  14. Dae Wihae 894–906
  15. Dae Inseon 906–926


Balhae (Korean: 발해) or Bohai (Chinese: 渤海; pinyin: Bóhǎi, Russian: Бохай, romanized: Bokhay, Manchu: ᡦᡠᡥᠠ‍ᡳ) (698–926) was a multi-ethnic kingdom in Manchuria, the Korean Peninsula and the Russian Far East.[7] The history of the founding of the state, its ethnic composition, the nationality of the ruling dynasty, the reading of their names, and its borders are the subject of a historiographical dispute between Korea, China and Russia.

Name

Balhae was founded in 698 by Dae Joyeong under the name 震 (진), transcribed as Jin in Korean romanisation or Zhen in Chinese romanisation. The kingdom's name was written as 振 in Chinese character,[8] with the Middle Chinese pronunciation dzyin;[9] King Go's state wrote its name as 震, with the Middle Chinese pronunciation tsyin.[10] The former state's character referred to the 5th Earthly Branch of the Chinese zodiac, a division of the orbit of Jupiter identified with the dragon. This was associated with a bearing of 120° (between ESE and SE) but also with the two-hour period between 7 and 9 am, leading it to be associated with dawn and the direction east.

In 713, the Tang dynasty bestowed the ruler of Jin with the noble title "Prince of Commandery of Bohai (Balhae)" (渤海郡王).[11]: §5.1 ¶3  In 762, the Tang formally elevated Balhae to the status of a kingdom.[12][13][11]: §5.1 ¶11 

The transcriptions Bohai[14] (based on Mandarin Chinese) and Parhae[15] (based on Korean) are also used in modern academia. Most Western-language scholarship have opted for Bohai except in the field of Korean studies, however some scholars have chosen the Korean romanization to avoid a "Chinese" narrative spread by the usage of pinyin romanization.[16]

History

Brick fragment inscribed with the characters shang jing 上京, "Upper Capital" of Balhae, held at the National Museum of China
Buddha statue from Balhae at the Ohara Museum of Art, Japan.[17] The inscription in Literary Chinese contains a description of the artifact's making in 834 AD, and an poem honoring the dharma.[18]

Origin

When Emperor Yang of Sui invaded Goguryeo in 612, two local leaders, Dae Jungsang and Geolsa Biu, were settled in Yingzhou.[19] In 696, Li Jinzhong (Mushang Khan) of the Khitans along with his brother-in-law Sun Wanrong rebelled against Tang (Wu Zetian‘s Zhou Dynasty[20]) hegemony, killed an abusive Tang commander, and attacked Hebei. Li died soon after and Sun succeeded him, only to be defeated by the Second Turkic Khaganate.[21] The population settled in Yingzhou fled eastward toward the Liao River during the turmoil. The Tang tried to appease Dae Jungsang and Geolsa Biu by granting them the tiles of Duke of Zhen (Jin) and Duke of Xu respectively. Geolsa Biu rejected the offer but was soon defeated by a Tang force led by Li Kaigu, while Dae Jungsang fled with his followers but also died around the same time. Dae Jungsang's son, Dae Joyeong, left the Liao River valley for Mt. Tianmen (in modern Jilin Province). There, he dealt a heavy defeat to the Tang forces at the Battle of Tianmenling (Cheonmunnyeong), after which he led his followers to set up a state. In 698, Dae Joyeong declared himself King of Jin (Zhen).[22][23][24][25][26]

Another account of the events suggests that there was no rebellion at all, and the leader of the Sumo Mohe (Malgal) rendered assistance to the Tang by suppressing Khitan rebels. As a reward the Tang acknowledged the leader as the local hegemon of a semi-independent state.[14]

In diplomatic communications between Silla and Jin, Silla attempted to confer investiture to Dae Joyeong with the title "Dae Achan". The people of Jin did not know the system of ranks used in Silla and thus accepted the title. After a while, Dae Joyeong realized the meaning of the title and sought to change Balhae's international status. In 713 or 714, the Tang dynasty recognized Dae Joyeong as the Prince of Bohai (Balhae), the name for the sea surrounding Liaodong and Shandong.[13][27] Neither the Tang or Silla recognized Balhae as the successor of Goguryeo. The Tang considered it a dukedom while Silla considered it their vassal. The Tang later recognized it as a kingdom in 762.[27]

Ethnic identity

The ethnic identity of Balhae's founder is controversial and disputed. Korean scholars of Balhae believe its population was composed of Goguryeo remnants and Mohe tribes.[28] Chinese Russian Japanee scholars consider that Mohe people form the ethnic majority and ruling class of Balhae. While modern Korean scholars usually consider Balhae a Korean state and one of the Northern and Southern States of Korea, Russian and Chinese scholars reject this notion, echoing the position of historical Korean scholars such as Gim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi.[28]

Historical sources give different accounts of Dae Joyeong's ethnicity and background.[29] Among the official dynastic history works, the New Book of Tang refers to Dae Joyeong and his state as a Sumo Mohe (related to Jurchens and later Manchus) affliated with Goguryeo.[30][31] The Old Book of Tang also states Dae's ethnic background as Mohe but adds that he was "渤海靺鞨大祚榮者，本高麗別種也。" .[32] The term is interpreted as meaning "a branch of the Goguryeo people" by South and North Korean historians, but as "distinct from Goguryeo" by Japanese and Chinese researchers.[33]

Sillan aristocracy tended to view the Balhae population as consisting of solely Mohe people, but this could be due to the antagonistic relations between the two states causing the Sillan nobility to ignore Goguryeo elements of Balhae ethnic composition.[31] The Ruijū Kokushi, a 9th century Japanese text, says that when Balhae was founded, it spanned 2,000 li and was filled with villages, each of which were Mohe tribes.[34][28] The Samguk yusa, a 13th-century collection of Korean history and legends, describes Dae as a Sumo Mohe leader. However, it gives another account of Dae being a former Goguryeo general.[35] Alexander Kim considers this unlikely since Goguryeo fell in 668 while Dae died in 719, and young men could not receive the rank of general.[36]

It is evident that Balhae had a diverse population, including other minorities such as Khitan and Evenk peoples.[37] Archaeological evidence suggests that the Balhae culture was an amalgamation of High Tang Chinese, Korean, and Tungusic cultures.[38] With a clear dominance of the Mohe culture in most of the territory of the state. In addition to the listed cultures, two autochthonous cultures of Teli and Fuyu were represented in the state. it also represented a culture related to the indigenous population of Japan. [39][40] [41]North Korean scholars believe that Bohai was a state where the ruling class and the main artisans were Koreans. And the mohe were their subjects and performed the function of the military. They also recognize the existence of other nations in this state. They also believe that the state was called not Bohai but Koguryeo. [42]

Expansion and foreign relations

Relations with Silla have remained extremely hostile throughout Bohai history.

In 732, Silla tried to attack Bohai, relying on the forces of the Tang Empire. However, Tang was distracted by the war in the west. And so the war ended with the fact that Bohai returned to China two Chinese cities captured in 714 on the Liaodong Peninsula. Retaining control over the peninsula itself. However, this was followed by a long boycott of trade with Silla and a rapprochement with Japan.[43] [44]

The bilateral relationship between the Tang and Balhae grew friendlier. From 766-779, 25 missions from Balhae paid respect to Daizong.[citation needed] By the end of Heummu's reign in 793, princes from Balhae's royal family were serving as guards at the court of Emperor Dezong of Tang of their volition. Peace with the Tang allowed Balhae to further expand its territory.[citation needed]

Fall

In 907, Balhae came into conflict with the Khitan Liao dynasty because of the decision of the Khitans (near modern Chifeng and Tongliao),[45] who recognized the supremacy of Balhae, to become part of the Liao dynasty. The Liao ruler Abaoji took possession of the Liao River basin, which led to a long conflict.[46] In 924, Balhae attacked the Khitans. In 926, the Khitans laid siege to the Balhae capital Sanggyeong yongcheonbu and forced their surrender.[47] In Balhae's place, the Khitans established the autonomous kingdom of Dongdan ruled by the Liao crown prince Yelü Bei.[48] Its independence ended in 929 when a new Liao ruler ordered the relocation of its population.[48] It was soon absorbed into the Liao in 936.[12] The name of Balhae was officially removed in 982.[49] according to the position of the Republic of Korea, a series of nobilities and elites led by key figures such as crown prince Dae Gwang-hyeon, were absorbed into Goryeo.[50] Some Balhae aristocrats were forced to move to Liaoyang, but Balhae's southern territory remained politically independent in Later Balhae, which was later renamed to Jeongan. [51][52][53]

Korean nationalist scholars consider that the eruption of Mount Baekdu in 930–940s dealt a final blow to the surviving forces of Balhae, based on records of massive population displacement of Balhae people to the Liaodong peninsula of the Khitan empire and the Korean peninsula of Goryeo.[54][55] However this theory has lost popularity in Korea in recent times and Russian scholars do not consider it a plausible reason for Balhae's collapse. The most paramount reason seems to have been military confrontation with a superior power, the Khitans.[56] The Khitan conquest of Balhae was one of the factors behind Goryeo's prolonged hostility against Khitan Liao dynasty. [11]

Later history

Goryeo

According to the position of the Republic of Korea. Though Balhae was lost, a great portion of the royalty and aristocracy fled to Goryeo, including Dae Gwang-hyeon, the last crown prince.[57][58] They were granted land and the crown prince was given the family name Wang (왕, 王), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty, and included in the royal household by Wang Geon. Koreans believe Goryeo thus unified the two successor nations of Goguryeo.[59] Some other members of the Balhae royalty took the surname Tae (태, 太).[60] The Goryeosa notes the existence of additional mass emigrations of the dispersed Balhae people before the fall of Jeongan.[citation needed]

Culture

Within sixty sites identified as Balhae settlements, many had dwellings with heating stoves, ceramic roof tiles, and vessels. Iron agricultural implements suggest that sophisticated agriculture was practiced in parts of Balhae. These finds indicate that much of the population even outside the capitals were sedentary.[61][unreliable source?]

A record of the journey of Hong Hao (1088-1155) in Jin territory describes the Balhae people as primarily martial and not adherent to Confucian norms. Balhae women were described as "fiercely jealous"[62][unreliable source?] and prevented the men from deviating from martial fidelity. Balhae men were described as "full of cunning, surpassing other nations in courage, such that there exists a saying 'Three Bohai are a match for a tiger.'" Some Balhae people practiced Buddhism.[62][unreliable source?] However Balhae cultural markers evidently did not deviate to the point of preventing assimilation into neighboring societies. There was widespread usage of "Chinese" style surnames in Balhae and no distinct cultural marker prevented them from integrating into Chinese literati society. There is no evidence of any friction in this process. Their practices overlapped with other groups.[63][unreliable source?]

Society

According to Korean scholars and other historians, Mohe made up the working class which served the Goguryeo ruling class.[60][unreliable source?][64] Some historians believe that ethnic conflicts between the ruling Goguryeos and underclass Mohe weakened the state.[60] Other historians offer dissenting views. Han Ciu-cheol agreed that Mohe people were the majority of Balhae's population but disagreed that they were any different from Goguryeo or Balhae. According to Han, the origins of "Malgal" and "Mulgil" lie in the Goguryeo language, and the "the Malgal language and customs were the same as those of Goguryeo and Balhae."[65]

On the other hand, the Russian historian Polutov believes that Goguryeo descendants did not have political dominance, and the ruling system was open to all people equally.[66] Its ruling structure was based on the military leader-priestly management structure of the Mohe tribes and also partly adapted elements from the Chinese system. After the 8th century, Balhae became more centralized, and power was consolidated around the king and the royal family.[67]

The class system of Balhae society is controversial. Some studies suggest there was stratified and rigid class system similar to other Korean kingdoms. Elites tended to belong to large extended aristocratic family lines designated by surnames. The commoners in comparison had no surnames at all, and upward social mobility was virtually impossible as class and status were codified into a caste system.[68][unreliable source?] Other studies have shown there was a clan system but no clear division of classes existed where the position of the clan leader depended on the strength of the clan. A clan leader could become any member of the clan if he had sufficient authority. There were also religiously privileged shaman clans. The main part of society in Balhae was free in a personal capacity and consisted of clans.[69]

Government

Administrative divisions of the Balhae kingdom, with Chinese and Korean names[b]
See also: List of Balhae monarchs

After its founding, Balhae actively imported the culture and political system of the Tang dynasty and the Chinese reciprocated through an account of Balhae describing it as the "flourishing land of the East (海東盛國)."[64][70][71] The bureaucracy of Balhae was modeled after the Three Departments and Six Ministries and used literary Chinese as the written language of administration.[12][72] Balhae's aristocrats and nobility traveled to the Tang capital of Chang'an on a regular basis as ambassadors and students, many of whom went on to pass the imperial examinations.[68] Although Balhae was a tributary state of the Tang dynasty, it followed its own independent path, not only in its internal policies, but also in its foreign relations. Furthermore, it regarded itself as an empire, and sent ambassadors to neighbor states such as Japan in an independent capacity.[27]

Balhae had five capitals, fifteen provinces, and sixty-three counties.[73] Balhae's original capital was at Dongmo Mountain in modern Dunhua, Jilin Province, China. In 742 it was moved to the Central Capital in Helong, Jilin. It was moved to the Upper Capital in Ning'an, Heilongjiang in 755, to the Eastern Capital in Hunchun, Jilin in 785, and back to the Upper Capital in 794.[12] Sanggyong (Upper Capital) was organized in the way of the Tang capital of Chang'an. Residential sectors were laid out on either side of the palace surrounded by a rectangular wall. The same layout was also implemented by other East Asian capitals of the time.[74][75]

Language and script

The epitaph of Princess Jyeongho, the second daughter of Mun of Balhae (r. 737–793)

Balhae used multiple languages. The indigenous language of Balhae is unclear, as no extant text or gloss of the language survived.[76]

One term that the people of Balhae used to describe "a king" was Gadokbu, which is related with the words kadalambi (management) of the Manchu language and kadokuotto of the Nanai language.[77][78]

Alexander Vovin suggests that the Balhae elite spoke a Koreanic language, which has had a lasting impact on Khitan, Jurchen and Manchu languages.[76][79] Some Korean historians believe that a record in Shoku Nihongi implies that the Balhae and Silla language were mutually intelligible: a student sent from Silla to Japan for Japanese language interpreter training assisted a diplomatic envoy from Balhae in communicating with the audience of a Japanese court.[80][81]

Diplomatic missions between Balhae, Japan and the Tang dynasty were primarily conducted in the Chinese language. Based on administrative and diplomatic records, a number of Japanese historians and linguists have further suggested that Chinese was the lingua franca of Balhae.[82][83] Classical Chinese was also used for two tomb inscriptions for members of the Balhae royal family.[84] Excavated epigraphic materials indicate that the Chinese script was the only widely used script in Balhae.[85] According to Russian scientific research, the Balhae writing system is based on Chinese characters, and among the characters used, many were used only in the state "Wu". However, the recording was phonetic.[86][87] Some of the names of Balhae's emissaries were similar to Chinese names while others were unique to Balhae: Wodala, Zhaoheshi, and Nansali. The unique Balhae names were the minority.[62]

Economy and trade

The place where Balhae existed now has a cold climate.[citation needed] Although the climate was mild at the time, the climate served as a big boost to the development of the kingdom.[citation needed] The statement about the climate is doubtful since it is not found in scientific sources. The agriculture, livestock, fishing, and industry sectors were popular however fishing remained the most prevalent and became very developed. Whaling was also done, albeit this was mostly done as tribute to the Tang.[88]

Balhae had a high level of craftsmanship and engaged in trade with neighboring polities such as the Göktürks, Nara Japan, Later Silla and the Tang dynasty.[89] Balhae sent a large number of envoys to Japan, called Bokkaishi [ja]. Fur from Balhae was exported to Japan while textile products and precious metals, such as gold and mercury, were imported from Japan. In Japan, the fur of the 貂 (ten, i.e. sable or other marten) was very valuable due to its popularity among Japanese aristocrats.[90][88] Similarly, Balhae builders used Japanese fortification techniques and with prevailing Japanese culture in their construction of the port of An [ru].[91] Balhae's musical works Shinmaka (Japanese: 新靺鞨しんまか) have been preserved by the Japanese court.[92]

Controversies

Main article: Balhae controversies
See also: Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

The historic position of Balhae is disputed between Korean, Chinese, Russian, and Japanese historians.[93][94] Korean scholars consider Balhae to be the successor state of Goguryeo, and part of the North–South States Period of Korean history. Chinese scholars argue that Balhae was a local administration of the Tang dynasty and composed of Mohe people, making it a part of Chinese history due to its close cultural and political ties with Tang China.[13]

The Russian scientific archaeological school has its own view of the history of this state, which has significant contradictions with the Korean, and different from the Chinese. [94][95][96][97] Japanese official position coincides with the position of Russia. [98]

Media

Balhae features in the Korean film Shadowless Sword, which is about the last prince of Balhae. The Korean TV drama Dae Jo Yeong, which aired from 16 September 2006, to 23 December 2007, was about the founder of Balhae.[citation needed]

Balhae is the name of the lunar research facility in the Korean TV series The Silent Sea.[99]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See the Emperor at home, king abroad.
  2. ^ Map of Balhae

References

  1. ^ 동북아역사재단 편 (Northeast Asian History Foundation) (2007). 새롭게 본 발해사. 동북아역사재단. p. 62. ISBN 978-89-6187-003-0.
  2. ^ "渤海の遼東地域の領有問題をめぐって : 拂涅・越 喜・鉄利等靺鞨の故地と関連して" (PDF). Kyushu University Institutional Repository. 2003.
  3. ^ Kradin Nikolai Nikolaevich (2018). "Динамика урбанизационных процессов в средневековых государствах Дальнего Востока" [Dynamics of urbanization processes in the medieval states of the Far East]. Siberian historical research. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  4. ^ Stoyakin Maxim Aleksandrovich (2012). Культовая архитектура Бохайского времени в северной части Кореского Полуострова [Religious cult architecture of the Bohai time in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula]. BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE OF PARHAE (BOHAI) LOCATED IN NORHERN PART OF KOREAN PENINSULA (in Russian). Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  5. ^ 古畑徹 (2017). 渤海国とは何か 歴史文化ライブラリー (in Japanese). 吉川弘文館. ISBN 978-4642058582.
  6. ^ https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/buddiyskaya-kultovaya-arhitektura-bohayskogo-vremeni-v-severnoy-chasti-koreyskogo-poluostrova/viewer
  7. ^ 정석배 JUNG Suk-bae (2016). "발해의 북방경계에 대한 일고찰 (Study on northern borders of Balhae)". 고구려발해연구 The Koguryo Balhae Yongu (in Korean). 54. 고구려발해학회 Association of Koguryo Balhae: 88.
  8. ^ "「渤海と古代の日本」" (PDF). 2010 年度第 6 回日本海学講座. 酒寄 雅志.
  9. ^ Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014), Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, p. 181, ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.
  10. ^ Baxter & Sagart; p. 20.
  11. ^ a b c 劉昫. "列传第一百四十九下 北狄 靺鞨 渤海靺鞨". 舊唐書 [Old Book of Tang] (in Chinese). Vol. 199下. Retrieved 18 December 2019. 越熹靺鞨東北至黑水靺鞨，地方二千里，編戶十余萬，勝兵數萬人。
  12. ^ a b c d Michael Dillon (1 December 2016). Encyclopedia of Chinese History. Taylor & Francis. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-317-81715-4.
  13. ^ a b c Jinwung Kim (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-253-00024-8.
  14. ^ a b Crossley 1997, p. 18.
  15. ^ "Archeological Studies of Bohai in Russia" (PDF). 2008.
  16. ^ Sloane 2014, p. 366.
  17. ^ "Asiatic Art". Ohara Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 21 December 2015.
  18. ^ 李殿福 (1994). "渤海咸和四年铭文佛龛考释". 社会科学战线 (3).
  19. ^ Wang 2013, p. 86-87.
  20. ^ Uwitchett, Denis. Chen gui and Other Works Attributed to Empress Wu Zetian (PDF). p. 20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 October 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
  21. ^ Wang 2013, p. 85.
  22. ^ Wang 2013, p. 87.
  23. ^ 上田雄 (2004). 渤海国 東アジア古代王国の使者たち. 講談社学術文庫. p. 2. ISBN 978-4061596535.
  24. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012), East Asia: A New History, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, p. 177
  25. ^ Seth, Michael J. (2016), A Concise History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, p. 71
  26. ^ Kim, Djun Kil Kim (2014), The History of Korea, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, p. 54
  27. ^ a b c Kim, Alexander Alexeyvich (2014). "The problem of understanding of the political status of Bohai state" (PDF). Harvard Library.
  28. ^ a b c Kim 2011, p. 292.
  29. ^ Richard, Zgusta (2015). The Peoples of Northeast Asia through Time Precolonial Ethnic and Cultural Processes along the Coast between Hokkaido and the Bering Strait. ISBN 978-90-04-30043-9.
  30. ^ New Book of Tang, Chapter 219: Bohai. 渤海、本粟末靺鞨附高麗者、姓大氏。
  31. ^ a b Kim 2015, p. 8.
  32. ^ Old Book of Tang, Original: 渤海靺鞨大祚榮者，本高麗別種也. Link
  33. ^ 徐吉洙. "渤海は高句麗を引き継いだ". 高句麗研究会.
  34. ^ <類聚国史>卷一九三记载:天皇二年(698年),大祚荣始建渤海国,其国延袤二千里,无州县馆驿,处处有村里,皆靺鞨部落。其百姓者 靺鞨多,土人少,皆以土人为村长.
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  • Shin, Michael D. (2014), Korean History in Maps
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  • Pozzi, Alessandra; Janhunen, Juha Antero; Weiers, Michael, eds. (2006). Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary. Vol. 20 of Tunguso Sibirica. Contributor Giovanni Stary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447053785. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  • Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Balhae.
  1. ^ http://ihaefe.org/files/dissertations/kim_aleks/avtoreferat.pdf
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