History of the M1 Abrams

The M1 Abrams tank has been in service since 1980. Since then, it has gone through dozens of upgrades and been the baseline variant of several vehicles.

Development

An XM1 Abrams, during a demonstration at Fort Knox, Kentucky in 1979.

The first attempt to replace the aging M60 Patton was the MBT-70, developed in partnership with West Germany in the 1960s and reaching the testing stage by 1968. The MBT-70 was very ambitious, and had various innovative ideas that ultimately proved unsuccessful. As a result of the imminent failure of this project, the U.S. Army introduced the XM803. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60.

Congress canceled the MBT-70 in November and XM803 December 1971. The Army restarted its M60 successor program with Major General William Robertson Desobry leading the team formulating requirements in March 1972. Army officials told congressmen in April that there was little that could be salvaged from the past efforts, and that a new tank would take at least eight years to develop. A Pentagon task force submitted requirements for the tank in January 1973. By April the Pentagon approved the project with Brigadier General Robert. J. Baer as production manager. Desobry told The New York Times, "We ought to be shot if it doesn't work."

The Pentagon's requirements specified a tank gun between 105 and 120-mm and an Bushmaster cannon with a caliber between 20 and 30-mm. Plans called for a tank weighing about 54 tons. By 1973 the Army had settled on buying 3,312 of the new tanks, with production beginning in 1980.

The price of the $3 billion program was assailed by Congressman Les Aspin in July. The Pentagon had projected unit costs were to be less than US$507,000 in 1972 dollars. Aspin argued that were the research and development costs factored in, tanks would actually cost over $900,000 a piece (compared to $1.3 million for the canceled MBT-70). Noting that the M60 Patton costed only $500,000 each Aspin said, "I'm sure that the Army's new tank is not twice as good as what we have today."

In June the Army awarded a competitive three-year contracts - $68 million for Chrysler Corporation and $87 million to General Motors Corporation - for the production of prototypes. In February 1976 the two prototypes were tested at Aberdeen Proving Ground. Chrysler chose a regenerative turbine engine made by Avco Lycoming while General Motors chose a Teledyne Continental diesel engine.

They were armed with the license-built version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun along with a Leopard 2. The Pentagon in 1994 also allowed the West German Leopard 2 to be tested against the American winner at Aberdeen with the understanding that the better tank would be adopted by both countries. However the two nations were unable to reconcile their nationalistic differences, so a compromise was made that would have both tanks would share common parts.

In July the Army recommended selecting the General Motors offering, but the recommendation was disregarded by the Pentagon, which asked competitors to modify their proposals to share parts with the German tank. In November the Army selected Chrysler's design. Chrysler's proposal may have been attractive because the company said it could incorporate the Rheinmetall M256 120 mm cannon without increasing costs, weight or the production timeline.

In 1979, General Dynamics Land Systems Division purchased Chrysler Defense.

3,273 M1 Abrams were produced 1979-85 and first entered US Army service in 1980. It was armed with the license-built version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984 and contained small upgrades. The M1IP models were used in the Canadian Army Trophy NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987.

About 6,000 M1A1 Abrams were produced from 1986–92 and featured the M256 120 mm smoothbore cannon developed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany for the Leopard 2, improved armor, and a CBRN protection system.

Persian Gulf War

Abrams move out on a mission during the Gulf War. A Bradley IFV and logistics convoy can be seen in the background.

M1A1 lost during a depot fire during Persian Gulf War.

As the Abrams entered service in the 1980s, they would operate alongside M60A3 within the United States military, and with other NATO tanks in numerous Cold War exercises. These exercises usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany, but also in some other countries like South Korea. During such training, Abrams crews honed their skills for use against the men and equipment of the Soviet Union. However, by 1991 the Soviet state had collapsed and the Abrams would have its trial by fire in the Middle East.

The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Persian Gulf War in 1991. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq's Soviet-era T-55 and T-62 tanks, as well as Iraqi assembled Russian T-72s, and locally produced copies (Asad Babil tank). The T-72s like most Soviet export designs lacked night vision systems and then-modern rangefinders, though they did have some night fighting tanks with older active infrared systems or floodlights—just not the latest starlight scopes and passive infrared scopes as on the Abrams. Only 23 M1A1s were taken out of service in the Persian Gulf and one of these losses resulted in a crew death from Iraqi fire. Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness. Very few Abrams tanks were hit by enemy fire, and there was only one fatality, along with a handful of woundings as a result.

The M1A1 was capable of making kills at ranges in excess of 2,500 meters (8,200 ft). This range was crucial in combat against tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) (Iraqi tanks could not fire anti-tank missiles like their Russian counterparts). This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in range—a decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In friendly fire incidents, the front armor and fore side turret armor survived direct APFSDS hits from other M1A1s. This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated at least in two occasions by friendly DU ammunition during the Battle of Norfolk.

On the night of February 26, 1991, four Abrams were disabled, possibly as a result of friendly fire by Hellfire missiles fired from AH-64 Apache attack helicopters, with the result of some crew members wounded in action. The tanks were part of TF 1-37, attacking a large section of Tawakalna Republican Guard Division, their numbers being B-23, C-12, D-24 and C-66. Abrams C-12 was definitively hit and penetrated by a friendly DU shot and there is some evidence that another Iraqi T-72 may have scored a single hit on B-23, besides the alleged Hellfire strike.

Tanks D-24 and C-66 took some casualties, but only B-23 became a permanent loss. The DoD's damage assessments state that B-23 was the only M1 with signs of a Hellfire missile found nearby.

Also during the Persian Gulf War, three Abrams of the U.S. 24th Infantry Division were left behind the enemy lines after a swift attack on Talil airfield, south of Nasiriyah, on February 27. One of them was hit by enemy fire, the two other embedded in mud. The tanks were destroyed by U.S. forces in order to prevent any trophy-claim by the Iraqi Army.

Tank and crew casualties

No.	Identification Number	Type of weapon	Date and place	Description of damage	Casualties
1.	Bumper B-31 TF 1-5 CAV	Mine	February 19 Ruqi Pocket	Tracks/Engine	None
2.	Unknown number 1st Brigade, 2nd Armored Division	Mine	February 24 Southern Kuwait	Tracks, One M1 tank struck a mine in the breach and lost some road wheels. No one in the tank was injured, and the tank was back in action within a day.	None
3.	Bumper K-42 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment	Struck by DPICM artillery	February 26 73 Easting	Loader machine-gun and left fuel cell destroyed	1 WIA
4.	Bumper B-66 TF 1-41, 2nd Armored Division(FWD)	Three DU kinetic energy rounds, after being hit by an Iraqi RPG-7	February 26 Norfolk line	Penetration in the hull, below the turret Ammunition blown-up	1 KIA, 3 WIAs
5.	Bumper B-22 TF 1-41, 2nd Armored Division(FWD)	One DU kinetic energy round	February 26 Norfolk line	Front slope hit with no internal damage	1 WIA
6.	Bumper A-14 TF 1-41, 2nd Armored Division(FWD)	One DU kinetic energy round	February 26 Norfolk line	One hit in the left side of the hull. Extensive damage by fire	3 WIAs
7.	Bumper A-31 TF 1-41, 2nd Armored Division(FWD)	Splinters of one DU kinetic energy penetrator	February 26 Norfolk line	Hit in the rear left hull	None
8.	Bumper A-33 TF 1-41, 2nd Armored Division(FWD)	Two DU rounds, after being hit by TOW missile	February 26 Norfolk line	Double penetration of the hull	3 WIAs
9.	Bumper D-24 TF 1-37, 1st Armored Division	Small caliber shaped charge	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Impact on NBC exhausts, compartment penetrated	2 WIAs
10.	Bumper B-23 TF 1-37, 1st Armored Division	Large caliber shaped charge, then hit by an unknown round, likely a KE (non-DU)	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Two hits, one on the rear grills, another penetrated both sides of the hull. Catastrophic damage by fire	1 WIA
11.	Bumper C-12 TF 1-37, 1st Armored Division	One DU kinetic energy penetrator, then hit by anti-tank missile	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	KE round achieved a double penetration of the hull. The anti-tank missile set the storage area of the turret on fire	None
12.	Bumper C-66 TF 1-37, 1st Armored Division	Two small shaped charges	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Small penetration of the left rear side of the hull. Impact on the turret defeated by armor	3 WIAs
13.	Bumper C-12 TF 4-8th CAV, 3rd Armored Division	73 mm shell from a BMP-1	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Minor damage to sponson box and .50 machine-gun	1 WIA
14.	Bumper B-24 TF 4-8th CAV, 3rd Armored Division	Enemy indirect fire	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Damaged to sponson box and duffle bags	None
15.	Bumper C-24 TF 4-8th CAV, 3rd Armored Division	Friendly DPICM	February 26 Assault on Tawakalna Division	Storage area shredded by shrapnel Main gun punctured	None
16.	Unknown number 197th Brigade, 24 Infantry Division	Crippled by enemy fire, then destroyed by DU rounds	February 27 Assault on Tallil airfield	Ammunition blown-up	None
17.	Unknown number 197th Brigade, 24 Infantry Division	Stuck in mud, then destroyed by DU rounds	February 27 Assault on Tallil airfield	Ammunition blown-up	None
18.	Unknown number 197th Brigade, 24 Infantry Division	Stuck in mud, then destroyed by DU rounds	February 27 Assault on Tallil airfield	Ammunition blown-up	None
19.	Bumper HQ66 Commander tank, TF 4-64 Armor, 24 Infantry Division	Two conventional KE or HEAT rounds from a 100 mm gun	February 27 South-west of Basra	120 mm gunner's primary sight (GPS) damaged and fuel-cell punctured. Sight replaced next morning. Tank continued in combat.	None
20.	Unknown number Turret number:5840U Hull number:D10060	Three conventional KE rounds from an Iraqi T-72	Unknown date/location	Two partial penetrations on the rear turret right side (possible fire in the storage area). Cosmetic damage on the turret front DU left armor plate.	None
21.	Bumper A-22 2nd Platoon, A Company, TF 4-64, 24 Infantry Division	Secondary explosions from an Iraqi T-72	March 2 Rumeilah Oilfields	Storage area devastated by fire. Ammunition blown-up.	1 WIA

Interwar upgrades

Following lessons learned in the Persian Gulf War, the Abrams and many other U.S. combat vehicles used in the conflict were fitted with Combat Identification Panels to reduce friendly fire incidents. These were fitted on the sides and rear of the turret, with flat panels equipped with a four-cornered 'box' image on either side of the turret front (these can be seen in the below image, similar flat panels also being employed on British Challenger 2 tanks serving in the conflict).

In addition to the Abrams' already heavy armament, some crews were also issued M136 AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun couldn't be brought to bear. Some Abrams were also fitted with a secondary storage bin on the back of the existing bustle rack on the rear of the turret referred to as a bustle rack extension to enable the crew to carry more supplies and personal belongings.

The M1A2 is a further improvement of the M1A1 with a commander's independent thermal viewer and weapon station, position navigation equipment, digital data bus and a radio interface unit. The M1A2 SEP (System Enhancement Package) added digital maps, FBCB2 (Force XXI Battlefield Command Brigade and Below) capabilities, and an improved cooling system to maintain crew compartment temperature with the addition of multiple computer systems to the M1A2 tank.

Further upgrades include depleted uranium armor for all variants, a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC) and an electronic upgrade for the A2 (M1A2 SEP).

During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm and for Bosnia, some M1A1s were modified with armor upgrades. The M1 can be equipped with mine plow and mine roller attachments if needed. The M1 chassis also serves as a basis for the Grizzly combat engineering vehicle and the M104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge.

Over 8,800 M1 and M1A1 tanks have been produced at a cost of US$2.35–$4.30 million per unit, depending on the variant.

Iraq War

M1A1 Abrams pose for a photo under the "Hands of Victory" in Ceremony Square, Baghdad, Iraq.

US Marine Corps M1A1 on a live fire exercise in Iraq, 2003

A destroyed USMC M1A1 Abrams rests in front of a Fedayeen camp just outside Jaman Al Juburi, Iraq in April 2003.

M1A1 conducts reconnaissance in Iraq in September 2004.

Further combat was seen during 2003 when US forces invaded Iraq and deposed the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, in an invasion that lasted just 43 days (20 March to 1 May). M1 tanks proved instrumental in leading rapid attacks against the Iraqi military, as exemplified by the so-called 'Thunder Runs.' As of March 2005, approximately 80 Abrams tanks shipped back to the United States for repair due to fire from enemy attacks. Abandoned Abrams were purposely destroyed by friendly fire to prevent recovery of vehicle or technology. Damages by 25 mm AP-DU, anti-armor RPG fire and 12.7 mm rounds was encountered. But on no occasion did anti-tank guided weapons or anti-tank mines strike the US MBTs.

During the Battle of Najaf on March 25, two Abrams were struck by an unidentified weapon and knocked out. Their ammunition stores ignited, but both crews escaped without injury. Another Abrams was disabled near Karbala after an RPG warhead penetrated the rear engine compartment. There were more losses during the Battle of Baghdad. On April 4, two Abrams were destroyed by anti-aircraft guns, while on April 5, another was hit by a recoilless rifle and set aflame. After repeated attempts to extinguish the fire, the decision was made to destroy or remove any sensitive equipment. Oil and .50 caliber rounds were scattered in the interior, the ammunition doors were opened and several thermite grenades ignited inside. Another M1 then fired a HEAT round in order to ensure the destruction of the disabled tank. The Abrams was completely disabled but still intact. Later, the Air Force bombed the tank to destroy it in place, and the Iraqi Information Ministry claimed credit for destroying it.

The most lopsided achievement of the M1A2s was the destruction of seven Lion of Babylon tanks in a point-blank skirmish (less than 50 yards (46 m)) near Mahmudiyah on April 3, with no losses for the U.S. side. As usual, the Iraqi tanks were hampered by poorly trained crews, slow and complicated turret traverse, and an unstabilized gun. However, on March 31, 2003, an Abrams belonging to the US Marine Corps drove off the side of a bridge at night, dropping the tank into the Euphrates River and drowning the four crew members.

On October 29, 2003, two soldiers were killed and a third wounded when their tank was disabled by an anti-tank mine, which was combined with other explosives (up to 250 kg, including several 155 mm rounds) to increase its effect. The massive explosion beneath the tank knocked off the turret.

On November 27, 2004, an Abrams tank was badly damaged from the detonation of an improvised explosive device (IED) consisting of three 155 mm shells (containing 34.5 kg of explosives). The tank's driver received lethal injuries from shrapnel. The other three crew members were able to escape.

On December 25, 2005, another U.S. Army M1A1 was disabled by an explosively formed penetrator. The IED penetrated through a road wheel, and hit the fuel tank, which left the tank burning near central Baghdad. One crew member died in the attack.

On June 6, 2006, two of the four soldiers in an Abrams crew were killed during combat operations in Baghdad, when an IED detonated near their M1A2.

Some Abrams were disabled by Iraqi infantrymen in ambushes employing short-range antitank rockets, such as the Russian RPG-7, during the 2003 invasion. Although the RPG-7 is unable to penetrate the front and sides, the rear and top are vulnerable to this weapon. Frequently the rockets were fired at the tank tracks. Another was put out of action in the Battle of Baghdad after being struck by numerous medium caliber weapons, including 12.7mm rounds which ruptured a fuel bladder stored on an external rack. This started a fire that spread to the engine.

By December 2006, more than 530 Abrams tanks had been shipped back to the U.S. for repair.

Iraqi usage

It was reported that 28 Iraqi Army Abrams had been damaged in fighting with militants, five of them suffering full armor penetration when hit by ATGMs, in the period between 1 January and the end of May 2014; some were destroyed or damaged by militants placing explosive charges on or in the vehicles, highlighting the lack of adequate infantry support provided by Iraqi soldiers. In mid-2014, Iraqi Army Abrams tanks saw action when the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant launched the June 2014 Northern Iraq offensive. Some Iraqi Army M1A1M tanks were destroyed in fighting against ISIL forces while an unknown number were captured intact. At least one ISIL-controlled M1A1M Abrams was reportedly used in the capture of the Mosul Dam in early August 2014. The Abrams suffered its first heavy losses at the hands of ISIL fighters against Iraqi-operated tanks through planted explosives, anti-tank missiles like the Kornet, and captured tanks later being destroyed by American airstrikes. The chief cause of these losses was the poor training of Iraqi tank operators and lack of infantry coordination. About one-third of the 140 Abrams tanks delivered to the Iraqi Army had been captured or destroyed by ISIL. By December 2014, the Iraqi Army only had about 40 operational Abrams left. That month, the U.S. State Department approved the sale of another 175 Abrams to Iraq. The tanks may be fitted with additional protection features to defend against ISIL mine, roadside bomb, and other attacks including belly armor, reactive armor, 360-degree night vision sensors, mine-clearing blades and rollers, and a wide-area spotlight-equipped remotely operated gun mount. If approved by Congress and funded by the Iraqi government, the improvements could be made within 18 months. By late 2015, some Iraqi Abrams tanks that had been dropped off at repair facilities were re-equipped with Russian heavy machine guns firing Iranian-manufactured ammunition, which may violate sales agreements prohibiting material usage by Shiite militias and the unsanctioned addition of foreign weapons.

From February to April 2016, Iraqi Army forces took back the town of Hit from ISIL. Three Iraqi-operated M1A1 Abrams tanks took part in the operation, but two broke down early on. The lone working Abrams performed exceptionally in combat, destroying enemy IEDs, punching holes in defenses, and maneuvering between multiple engagements. U.S. forces monitoring Iraqi movements thought multiple tanks were in operation and were surprised to learn it had been working alone, crediting its success to the U.S.-trained crew. The Abrams was nicknamed "The Beast" and has achieved somewhat of a folklore status among the Iraqi people.

In October 2017, Iraqi M1A1 Abrams tanks were cited by Kurdish sources as key to the Iraqi victory at the Battle of Kirkuk, as the Kurdish Peshmerga possessed no weaponry which could counter the tanks. However, later in the war at Alton-Kopri and Zumar, the Kurdish Peshmerga destroyed two Iraqi Abrams tanks in two days with the Milan missile system.

Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)

Starting from 2015, the Saudi Arabian Army deployed their M1 tanks during the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. While the exact number of losses is not clear due to poor reporting from the conflict, it became clear that a certain number of Saudi tanks were lost to enemy forces using ATGMs, RPGs and mines. During summer 2016, a deal to sell 153 more M1 tanks to Saudi Arabia was revealed, with 20 of them being tagged as "battle damage replacements", implying that a similar number of Saudi M1 tanks were lost to the enemy.

Afghanistan

Operating tanks in Afghanistan can be difficult due to the terrain, although Canada and Denmark have deployed tanks to Afghanistan that have been specifically upgraded to fight in the tough Afghan environment. The U.S. sent 16 M1A1 Abrams tanks and 115 Marines to southern Afghanistan to support operations in the Helmand and Kandahar provinces in late 2010.

Future

The tracked M8 Armored Gun System was conceived as a possible supplement for the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict in the early 90's. Prototypes were made but the program was canceled. The 8-wheeled M1128 Mobile Gun System was designed to supplement the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict. It has been introduced into service and, though mobile, it has proven to be quite vulnerable.

The U.S. Army's Future Combat Systems' XM1202 Mounted Combat System was to replace the Abrams in U.S. service and was in late stages of development when funding for the program was cut from the DoD's budget.

In September 2009, the Army Times and Marine Corps Times published reports that US Army researchers have begun the process of designing a version of the Abrams that will carry the M1A3 label. According to the reports, the Army is seeking to reduce the weight of the vehicle to approximately 60 tons from its current operational weight of roughly 75 tons. Additionally, the M1A3 may incorporate a new generation of advanced networking capabilities and enhanced armor protection. Other improvements are to include a lighter 120 mm gun, added road wheels with improved suspension, a more durable track, lighter armor, long-range precision armaments, and infrared camera and laser detectors. A new internal computer system is also planned, with current cabling replaced by fiber-optic cables that can reduce weight by two tons. The Army currently aims to build prototypes by 2014 and to begin to field the first combat-ready M1A3s by 2017.

The developing Ground Combat Vehicle sought to generate a family of combat vehicles that could permanently replace the M1 as well as many other U.S. army vehicles. The Army anticipates that the Abrams may remain in service until 2050.

Production

The military planned to close the M1 Abrams factory in Ohio from 2013 to 2016 to save over US$1 billion. In 2017 the plant would reopen to upgrade existing tanks. The downside to the three-year plant closing is the loss of the skilled human capital required to build the M1. These types of job skills must be learned on the job as the building is too unique to offer any type of educational program in a trade school environment.

By August 2013, Congress had allocated $181 million for buying parts and upgrading Abrams systems to mitigate industrial base risks and sustain development and production capability. Congress and General Dynamics were criticized for redirecting money to keep production lines open and accused of "forcing the Army to buy tanks it didn't need." General Dynamics asserted that a four-year shutdown would cost $1.1–1.6 billion to reopen the line, depending on the length of the shutdown, whether machinery would be kept operating, and whether the plant's components would be completely removed. They contended that the move was to upgrade Army National Guard units to expand a "pure fleet" and maintain production of identified "irreplaceable" subcomponents; a prolonged shutdown could cause their makers to lose their ability to produce them and foreign tank sales were not guaranteed to keep production lines open. Even though money is being spent to protect the industrial base, some feel those strategic choices should not be made by members of Congress, especially those with the facilities in their district. There is still risk of production gaps even with production extended through 2015; with funds awarded before recapitalization is needed, budgetary pressures may push planned new upgrades for the Abrams from 2017 to 2019. In December 2014, Congress again allocated $120 million, against the wishes of the Army, for Abrams upgrades including improving gas mileage by integrating an auxiliary power unit to decrease idle time fuel consumption and upgrading the tank's sights and sensors.