Jump to content

Environmental impact of wind power: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→Birds: update
Line 572: Line 572:
| location=Toronto, Canada}}</ref>
| location=Toronto, Canada}}</ref>


In a report about "Rural Wind Farms", a Standing Committe of the Parliament of New South Wales, Australia, recommended a minimum setback of two kilometres between wind turbines and neighbouring houses (which can be waived by the affected neighbour) as a precautionary approach.<ref name="NSW1">General Purpose Standing Committee No. 5, Parliament of New South Wales (December 16, 2009). [http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/Prod/parlment/committee.nsf/0/ea247659081d31fdca25768e001a2e2a/$FILE/091216%20Report%20-%20Rural%20wind%20farms.pdf "Final Report, Rural Wind Farms"].</ref>
In a 2009 report about "Rural Wind Farms", a Standing Committe of the Parliament of New South Wales, Australia, recommended a minimum setback of two kilometres between wind turbines and neighbouring houses (which can be waived by the affected neighbour) as a precautionary approach.<ref name="NSW1">General Purpose Standing Committee No. 5, Parliament of New South Wales (December 16, 2009). [http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/Prod/parlment/committee.nsf/0/ea247659081d31fdca25768e001a2e2a/$FILE/091216%20Report%20-%20Rural%20wind%20farms.pdf "Final Report, Rural Wind Farms"].</ref> In July 2010, Australia's [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] reported that "there is no published scientific evidence to support adverse effects of wind turbines on health".<ref>National Health and Medical Research Council (July 2010). [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/public_statement_wind_turbines_and_health.pdf Wind Turbines and Health] public statement.</ref>


A 2008 guest editorial in ''[[Environmental Health Perspectives]]''' published by the [[National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences]], the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]], stated: "Even seemingly clean sources of energy can have implications on human health. Wind energy will undoubtedly create noise, which increases stress, which in turn increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer."<ref>Julia M. Gohlke, Sharon H. Hrynkow, and Christopher J. Portier. [http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2008/116-6/guesteditorial.html "Health, Economy, and Environment: Sustainable Energy Choices for a Nation"]. Environ Health Perspect 2008 Jun;116(6):A236-7.</ref>
A 2008 guest editorial in ''[[Environmental Health Perspectives]]''' published by the [[National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences]], the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]], stated: "Even seemingly clean sources of energy can have implications on human health. Wind energy will undoubtedly create noise, which increases stress, which in turn increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer."<ref>Julia M. Gohlke, Sharon H. Hrynkow, and Christopher J. Portier. [http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2008/116-6/guesteditorial.html "Health, Economy, and Environment: Sustainable Energy Choices for a Nation"]. Environ Health Perspect 2008 Jun;116(6):A236-7.</ref>

Revision as of 04:06, 17 December 2010

Livestock ignore wind turbines,[1] and continue to graze as they did before wind turbines were installed.

A European Commission report[2] has found wind to have the lowest external costs, comprising human health impacts, building and crop damage, global warming, loss of amenities and ecological impact, when compared to coal, oil, gas, biomass, nuclear, hydro[citation needed] and photovoltaic electricity generation.

Energy derived from wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution. A study by Lenzen and Munksgaard of the University of Sydney and the Danish Institute for Local Governmental Studies finds that the energy consumed in manufacturing and transporting the materials used to build a wind power plant is paid back within months.[3]

Mark Diesendorf, Director of Sustainability Centre, states that wind installations in agricultural areas take very little land and are compatible with grazing and crops.[4]

There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines, as there are around other artificial structures. The scale of the ecological impact may[5] or may not[6] be significant, depending on the particular site. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and protection of peat bogs[7], affect the siting and operation of wind turbines.

There are conflicting reports[8][9] as to any health effects on people of sound or infrasound from wind turbines.

Carbon dioxide emissions and pollution

Wind power consumes no fuel for continuing operation, and has no emissions directly related to electricity production. Wind turbines produce no carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury, particulates, or any other type of air pollution, as do fossil fuel power sources. Wind power plants consume resources in manufacturing and construction. During manufacture of the wind turbine, steel, concrete, aluminum and other materials will have to be made and transported using energy-intensive processes, generally using fossil energy sources. The wind turbine manufacturer Vestas claims that initial carbon dioxide emissions "pay back" is within about 9 months of operation for off shore turbines.[10]

A 2006 study found the CO2 emissions of wind power to range from 14 to 33 tonnes per GWh of energy produced. Most of the CO2 emission comes from producing the concrete for wind-turbine foundations.[11]

A study by the Irish national grid stated that "Producing electricity from wind reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and therefore leads to emissions savings", and found reductions in CO2 emissions ranging from 0.33 to 0.59 tonnes of CO2 per MWh.[12]

The UKERC study of intermittency also states that wind energy can displace fossil fuel-based generation, reducing both fuel use and carbon dioxide emissions. [13]

Net energy gain

The initial carbon dioxide emission from energy used in the installation is "paid back" within about 9 months of operation for off shore turbines. Any practical large-scale energy source must replace the energy used in its construction. The energy return on investment (EROI) for wind energy is equal to the cumulative electricity generated divided by the cumulative primary energy required to build and maintain a turbine. The EROI for wind ranges from 5 to 35, with an average of around 18, according to wind-energy advocates. EROI is strongly proportional to turbine size,[14] and larger late-generation turbines are at the high end of this range, at or above 35.[10] Since energy produced is several times energy consumed in construction, there is a net energy gain.[4]

Ecology

Land use in operation

In the United States, landowners typically receive $3,000 to $5,000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine, while farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of the turbines.[15]
A wind turbine at Greenpark, Reading, England, producing electricity for around one thousand homes

To reduce losses caused by interference between turbines, a wind farm requires roughly 0.1 km2 (0.039 sq mi) of unobstructed land per megawatt of nameplate capacity. A 200 MW wind farm might extend over an area of approximately 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi).[citation needed]

Clearing of wooded areas is often unnecessary. Farmers commonly lease land to companies building wind farms. In the U.S., farmers may receive annual lease payments of two thousand to five thousand dollars per turbine.[16] The land can still be used for farming and cattle grazing. Wind-energy advocates contend that less than 1% of the land would be used for foundations and access roads, the other 99% could still be used for farming.[17] Critics point out that the clearing of trees around tower bases may be necessary for installation sites on mountain ridges, such as in the northeastern U.S.[18]

Turbines are not generally installed in urban areas. Buildings interfere with wind, turbines must be sited a safe distance ("setback") from residences in case of failure, and the value of land is high. However, there are a few notable exceptions. Toronto Hydro has built a lake shore demonstration project, and Steel Winds is a 20 MW urban project south of Buffalo, New York. Both of these projects are in urban locations, but benefit from being on uninhabited lake shore property.

Wind turbines located in agricultural areas may create concerns by operators of cropdusting aircraft. Operating rules may prohibit approach of aircraft within a stated distance of the turbine towers; turbine operators may agree to curtail operations of turbines during cropdusting operations.

In the UK there has also been concern about the damage caused to peat bogs,[19][7] with one Scottish MEP campaigning for a moratorium on wind developments on peatlands saying that "Damaging the peat causes the release of more carbon dioxide than wind farms save".[20]

Offshore locations use no land and avoid known shipping channels.

Land use in the supply chain

Over a dozen wind turbines are visible on the horizon near an open-pit coal mine in Germany

The mining and extraction of rare earth metals, such as neodymium, does occur for wind turbine generators.[21] Some generators for 3-megawatt machines may require two tons of rare earths for their permanent magnets, although the same generator designs exist for all types of electrical generating stations, regardless of the primary energy source. Additionally, wind turbine generators do not necessarily need permanent magnets to operate and can be designed with other types of magnets.[22][21] Permanent magnets are used for electrical devices, in part, because they are significantly more efficient and thus help reduce the production of greenhouse gases.[23]

Impact on wildlife

Projects such as the Black Law Wind Farm have received wide recognition for its contribution to environmental objectives, including praise from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, who said that the scheme was not only improving the landscape in a derelict opencast mining site, but also benefiting a range of wildlife in the area, with an extensive habitat management projects covering over 14 square kilometres.[24]

Birds

Danger to birds is often the main complaint against the installation of a wind turbine. However, a study[25] estimates that wind farms are responsible for 0.3 to 0.4 fatalities per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity while fossil-fueled power stations are responsible for about 5.2 fatalities per GWh. The author's study therefore claims that fossil fuel based electricity causes about 10 times more fatalities than wind farm based electricity, primarily due to habitat alteration from pollution and mountain-top removal. The number of birds killed by wind turbines is also negligible when compared to the number that die as a result of other human activities such as traffic, hunting, electric power transmission and high-rise buildings, and the introduction of feral and roaming domestic cats,[26]. For example in Denmark, where wind turbines generate 9% of electricity, wind turbines kill about 30,000 birds per year - while cars kill 1 million birds per year; thus cars kill 33 times as many birds[27]. Moreover, in the UK, where there are several hundred turbines, about one bird is killed per turbine per year; 10 million per year are killed by cars alone.[28] In the United States, turbines kill 70,000 birds per year, compared to 80,000 killed by aircraft,[29] 57 million killed by cars, 97.5 million killed by collisions with plate glass,[30] and hundreds of millions killed by cats.[26] An article in Nature stated that each wind turbine kills an average of 4.27 birds per year.[31]

In the UK, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) concluded that "The available evidence suggests that appropriately positioned wind farms do not pose a significant hazard for birds."[6] It notes that climate change poses a much more significant threat to wildlife, and therefore supports wind farms and other forms of renewable energy. In 2009, however, the RSPB warned that "numbers of several breeding birds of high conservation concern are reduced close to wind turbines," probably because "birds may use areas close to the turbines less often than would be expected, potentially reducing the carrying capacity of an area."[32] The National Audubon Society in the U.S. takes a similar position, broadly supporting wind power to help mitigate global warming, while cautioning against siting wind farms in areas especially important to birds and other affected wildlife.[33]

In some cases, the mere presence of wind turbines or transmission towers can affect threatened species, by restricting their range, thus fragmenting breeding populations.[5] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has issued voluntary guidelines for the siting of wind energy facilities in the United States. These guidelines make recommendations regarding siting which include avoiding placement in 1) areas documented as the location of any species protected under the Endangered Species Act, 2) in local bird migration pathways or areas where birds concentrate, 3) near landscape features that attract raptors, 4) in a configuration that is likely to cause bird mortality, and 5) where fragmentation of large contiguous tracts of wildlife habitat will occur as a result of turbine placement.[34] The wind industry is resisting such regulations.[5]

The Peñascal Wind Power Project in Texas is located in the middle of a major bird migration route, and the wind farm uses avian radar originally developed for NASA and the United States Air Force to detect birds as far as four miles away. If the system determines that the birds are in danger of running into the rotating blades, it shuts down the turbines. The system automatically restarts the turbines when the birds have passed.[35]

At the Altamont Pass Wind Farm in California, a settlement has been reached between the Audubon Society, Californians for Renewable Energy and NextEra Energy Resources (who operate some 5,000 turbines in the area). Nearly half of the smaller turbines will be replaced by newer, more bird-friendly models. The project is expected to be complete by 2015 and includes $2.5 million for raptor habitat restoration.[36]

Some paths of bird migration, particularly for birds that fly by night, are unknown. A study suggests that migrating birds may avoid the large turbines,[37] at least in the low-wind non-twilight conditions studied. A Danish 2005 (Biology Letters 2005:336) study showed that radio tagged migrating birds traveled around offshore wind farms, with less than 1% of migrating birds passing an offshore wind farm in Rønde, Denmark, got close to collision, though the site was studied only during low-wind non-twilight conditions.

Bats

File:Hypsugo-savii-Pag.JPG
Savi's Pipistrelle killed by "Ravna 1 wind farm" on island Pag, Croatia[38]

The numbers of bats killed by existing onshore and near-shore facilities has troubled bat enthusiasts.[39] A study in 2004 estimated that over 2200 bats were killed by 63 onshore turbines in just six weeks at two sites in the eastern U.S.[40] This study suggests some onshore and near-shore sites may be particularly hazardous to local bat populations and more research is needed. Migratory bat species appear to be particularly at risk, especially during key movement periods (spring and more importantly in fall). Lasiurines such as the hoary bat, red bat[disambiguation needed], and the silver-haired bat appear to be most vulnerable at North American sites. Almost nothing is known about current populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower locations. It has been suggested that bats are attracted to these structures in search of roosts.[41] Offshore wind sites 10 km (6 mi) or more from shore do not interact with bat populations.[citation needed]

Scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey have already conducted research using stable isotope analysis to track migration among terrestrial mammals. USGS scientists are currently applying this technique in their efforts to figure out the geographic origins of bats killed by wind turbines. [42]

Bats may be injured by direct impact with turbine blades, towers, or transmission lines. Recent research shows that bats may also be killed when suddenly passing through a low air pressure region surrounding the turbine blade tips. The low pressure causes barotrauma, damage to the bat's lungs. [43] Birds have more rigid lungs and are not affected by the low pressure zone.[44]

In April 2009 the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative released initial study results showing a 73% drop in bat fatalities when wind farm operations are stopped during low wind conditions, when bats are most active.[45]

Bats avoid radar transmitters, and placing microwave transmitters on wind turbine towers may reduce the number of bat collisions.[46][47]

Climate change

One study reports simulations that show detectable changes in global climate for very high wind farm usage, on the order of 10% of the world's land area.[48] In a similar way, there are concerns of micro-climate change due to turbulence in the wakes of the spinning turbine rotors [49].

Offshore

Many offshore wind farms are being built in UK waters. In January 2009, a comprehensive government environmental study of coastal waters in the United Kingdom concluded that there is scope for between 5,000 and 7,000 offshore wind turbines to be installed without an adverse impact on the marine environment. The study – which forms part of the Department of Energy and Climate Change's Offshore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment – is based on more than a year's research. It included analysis of seabed geology, as well as surveys of sea birds and marine mammals.[50][51]

Impacts on people

Safety

Operation of any utility-scale energy conversion system presents safety hazards. Wind turbines do not consume fuel or produce pollution during normal operation, but still have hazards associated with their construction and operation.

There have been at least 40 fatalities due to construction, operation, and maintenance of wind turbines, including both workers and members of the public, and other injuries and deaths attributed to the wind power life cycle.[52][53][54] Most worker deaths involve falls or becoming caught in machinery while performing maintenance inside turbine housings. Blade failures and falling ice have also accounted for a number of deaths and injuries. Deaths to members of the public include a parachutist colliding with a turbine and small aircraft crashing into support structures. Other public fatalities have been blamed on collisions with transport vehicles and motorists distracted by the sight and shadow flicker of wind turbines along highways.[55]

When a turbine's brake fails, the turbine can spin freely until it disintegrates or catches fire. Freely spinning blades may also hit the tower, causing collapse, as occurred on March 6, 2009, in Altona, New York.[56][57] Turbine blades may fail spontaneously due to manufacturing flaws. Lightning strikes are a common problem, also causing rotor blade damage and fires.[52][58][59][60] When ejected, pieces of broken blade and ice can be thrown hundreds of metres away. Although no member of the public has been killed by a malfunctioning turbine, there have been close calls, including injury by falling ice. Large pieces of debris, up to several tons, have dropped in populated areas, residential properties, and roads, damaging cars and homes.[52]

Often turbine fires cannot be extinguished because of the height, and are left to burn themselves out. In the process, they generate toxic fumes and can scatter flaming debris over a wide area, starting secondary fires below. Several turbine-ignited fires have burned hundreds of acres of vegetation each, and one burned 800 square kilometres (200,000 acres) of Australian National Park.[52][61][62][63][failed verification]

Electronic controllers and safety sub-systems monitor many different aspects of the turbine, generator, tower, and environment to determine if the turbine is operating in a safe manner within prescribed limits. These systems can temporarily shut down the turbine due to high wind, electrical load imbalance, vibration, and other problems. Recurring or significant problems cause a system lockout and notify an engineer for inspection and repair. In addition, most systems include multiple passive safety systems that stop operation even if the electronic controller fails.

Wind power proponent and author Paul Gipe estimated in Wind Energy Comes of Age that the mortality rate for wind power from 1980–1994 was 0.4 deaths per terawatt-hour.[64][65] Paul Gipe's estimate as of end 2000 was 0.15 deaths per TWh, a decline attributed to greater total cumulative generation.

By comparison, hydroelectric power was found to have a fatality rate of 0.10 per TWh (883 fatalities for every TW·yr) in the period 1969–1996.[66] That figure, which may have been skewed to an inaccurate low death estimate, included the Banqiao Dam collapse in mainland China in 1975 that may have killed up to 230,000 people—a high end estimate the Chinese government would not acknowledge similar to their policy of lowering earthquake deaths. Although the death rate for wind power is higher than some other power sources, the numbers are necessarily based on a small sample size. The apparent trend is a reduction in fatalities per TWh generated as more generation is supplied by larger units and safety is enhanced by both improved design and operating procedures.

Aesthetics

Windmills at La Mancha, Spain, made famous by the 1605 novel Don Quixote, are a national treasure.

Historical experience of noisy and visually intrusive wind turbines may create resistance to the establishment of land-based wind farms. Residents near turbines may complain of "shadow flicker" caused by rotating turbine blades. Wind towers require aircraft warning lights, which create bothersome light pollution. Complaints about these lights have caused the FAA to consider allowing fewer lights per turbine in certain areas.[67] These effects may be countered by changes in wind farm design.

Newer wind farms have larger, more widely spaced turbines, therefore appearing less cluttered than older installations.

Aesthetic issues are important for onshore and near-shore locations in that the "visible footprint" may be extremely large compared to other sources of industrial power (which may be sited in industrially developed areas). Wind farms may be close to scenic or otherwise undeveloped areas. Constructing offshore wind developments at least 10 km from shore may reduce this concern. Aesthetic issues are subjective, however. Some people find wind farms pleasant and optimistic, or symbols of energy independence and local prosperity,[68] and recognize that perceptions of what is "beautiful" in landscape is subject to change. While some tourism officials predict wind farms will damage tourism,[69] some wind farms have themselves become tourist attractions,[70][71][72] with several having visitor centers at ground level or even observation decks atop turbine towers.

Effects of noise

Dr Nina Pierpont, a New York pediatrician and a controversial figure in the wind power discussion, has said that noise can be an important disadvantage of wind turbines, especially when building the wind turbines very close to urban environments. The controversy around Dr. Pierpont's work centers around her claims made in a self-published, non-peer-reviewed book that ultra-low frequency sounds affect human health. She makes the assertion that wind turbines affect the mood of people and may cause physiological problems such as insomnia, headaches, tinnitus, vertigo and nausea.[8][73]

Professor Han Lindeboom of the Imares Maritime Research Institute has expressed worries that some marine and land-based organisms may be affected by the noise created during the construction of offshore wind turbines, concluding, "The construction of wind farms doesn't have to pose insuperable problems for marine life, but you should keep an eye on the situation."[74]

Renewable UK, a wind energy trade organization, has said that the noise measured 350m from a wind farm is less than that from normal road traffic or in an office.[75] However, independent studies by physicians and acoustic engineers have reported problems from wind turbine noise, including sleep deprivation, headaches, dizziness, anxiety, and vertigo.[76][77][78]

Research by Stefan Oerlemans for the University of Twente and the Dutch National Aerospace Laboratory suggests that noise from existing wind turbines may be reducible by up to half by adding "saw teeth" to the trailing edges of the blades, although research is not complete.[79]

In December 2006, a Texas jury denied a noise pollution suit against FPL Energy, after the company demonstrated that noise readings were not excessive. The highest reading was 44 decibels, which was characterized as about the same level as a 10 mile/hour (16 km/h) wind.[80] The nearest residence among the plaintiffs was 1,700 feet from one of the turbines.[81] More recent lawsuits have been brought in Missouri[82], Pennsylvania,[83] and Maine.[84]

In the Canadian Province of Ontario, the Ministry of the Environment created noise guidelines to limit wind turbine noise levels 30 metres away from a dwelling or campsite to 40 db(A).[85] These regulations also set a minimum distance of 550 metres (1,804 feet) for a group of up to five relatively quiet [102 dB(A)] turbines within a 3-kilometre (1.86-mile) radius, rising to 1,500 metres (4,921 feet) for a group of 11 to 25 noisier (106-107 db(A)) turbines. Larger facilities and noisier turbines would require a noise study.[86][87][9]

In a 2009 report about "Rural Wind Farms", a Standing Committe of the Parliament of New South Wales, Australia, recommended a minimum setback of two kilometres between wind turbines and neighbouring houses (which can be waived by the affected neighbour) as a precautionary approach.[88] In July 2010, Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council reported that "there is no published scientific evidence to support adverse effects of wind turbines on health".[89]

A 2008 guest editorial in Environmental Health Perspectives' published by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the U.S. National Institutes of Health, stated: "Even seemingly clean sources of energy can have implications on human health. Wind energy will undoubtedly create noise, which increases stress, which in turn increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer."[90]

The Japanese Environment Ministry will begin a "major study into the influence of sounds of wind turbines on people's health" in April 2010, because "people living near wind power facilities are increasingly complaining of health problems". They plan a four-year examination of all 1,517 wind turbines in the country.[91]

2007 and 2008 studies

A 2008 European Union–sponsored report from The Netherlands found that "the sound of wind turbines causes relatively much annoyance. The sound is perceived at relatively low levels and is thought to be more annoying than equally loud air or road traffic".[92] Although only 9% of the respondents in the Dutch study lived with an estimated outdoor noise level of more than 45 dBA, there was a significant level of sleep disturbance and annoyance, and the authors noted that "annoyance with wind turbine noise was associated with psychological distress, stress, difficulties to fall asleep and sleep interruption", which they described as a health effect.[92]

Similarly, a 2007 Swedish study report stated, "Annoyance is an adverse health effect."[93]

A 2007 report by the U.S. National Research Council noted, 'Low-frequency vibration and its effects on humans are not well understood. Sensitivity to such vibration resulting from wind-turbine noise is highly variable among humans. Although there are opposing views on the subject, it has recently been stated (Pierpont 2006[94]) that “some people feel disturbing amounts of vibration or pulsation from wind turbines, and can count in their bodies, especially their chests, the beats of the blades passing the towers, even when they can’t hear or see them.” More needs to be understood regarding the effects of low-frequency noise on humans.'[95]

2009 review

A 2009 review sponsored by two wind-industry groups, described as being the most comprehensive to date, delved into the possible adverse health effects of those living close to wind turbines. Their report findings concluded that wind turbines do not directly make people ill.[9][96]

The 85-page study was sponsored by the Canadian Wind Energy Association and American Wind Energy Association. The academic and medical experts who conducted the study stated that they reached their conclusions independent of their sponsors. "We were not told to find anything," said panel expert David Colby, a public health officer in Chatham-Kent and a Professor of Medicine at the University of Western Ontario. "It was completely open ended."[9]

The study did allow that some people could be stressed out by the swishing sounds wind turbines produce. "A small minority of those exposed report annoyance and stress associated with noise perception..." [however] "Annoyance is not a disease." The study group pointed out that similar irritations are produced by local and highway vehicles, as well as from industrial operations and aircraft.[9]

The wind-industry report found, amongst other things, that:[9]

  • "Wind Turbine Syndrome" symptoms are the same as those seen in the general population due to stresses of daily life. They include headaches, insomnia, anxiety, dizziness, etc...[9]
  • low frequency and very low-frequency "infrasound" produced by wind turbines are the same as those produced by vehicular traffic and home appliances, even by the beating of people's hearts. Such 'infrasounds' are not special and convey no risk factors;[9]
  • Colby stated that evidence of harm was so minuscule that the wind associations were unable to initiate other independent collinear studies by government agencies. It was not surprising that their requests met with complete blanks on the need to examine the issues further;[9]
  • one study member noted: "You can't control the amount of cars going by and wind turbine noise is generally quieter than highway noise";[9]
  • the power of suggestion, as conveyed by news media coverage of perceived 'wind-turbine sickness', might have triggered "anticipatory fear" in those close to turbine installations.[9]

The study panel members included: Robert Dobie, a doctor and clinical professor at the University of Texas, Geoff Leventhall, a noise vibration and acoustics expert in the United Kingdom, Bo Sondergaard, with Danish Electronics Light and Acoustics, Michael Seilo, a professor of audiology at Western Washington University, and Robert McCunney, a biological engineering scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. McCunney contested claims that infrasounds from wind turbines could create vibrations causing ill health: "It doesn't really have much credence, at least based on the literature out there" he stated.[9]

See also

References

  1. ^ Buller, Erin (2008-07-11). "Capturing the wind". Uinta County Herald. Retrieved 2008-12-04."The animals don’t care at all. We find cows and antelope napping in the shade of the turbines." - Mike Cadieux, site manager, Wyoming Wind Farm
  2. ^ EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Directorate-General for Research (First published 2006). "Directorate J-Energy" (PDF). EUROPEAN COMMISSION. Retrieved 2010-Sep 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |1= and |coauthors= (help)
  3. ^ Lenzen, M. & Munksgaard, J. Energy And CO2 Life-Cycle Analyses Of Wind Turbines: Review and Applications, Renewable Energy, 2002, Vol.26, pp.339–362 (subscription). Note: The authors found that the average energy payback period was 5.2 months during the 2001 study.
  4. ^ a b Why Australia needs wind power
  5. ^ a b c Eilperin, Juliet (April 16, 2009). "Renewable Energy's Environmental Paradox". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-04-17. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b "Wind farms". Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. 2005-09-14. Retrieved 2008-09-07.
  7. ^ a b Lindsay, Richard (October 2004). "WIND FARMS AND BLANKET PEAT The Bog Slide of 16th October 2003 at Derrybrien, Co. Galway, Ireland" (PDF). The Derrybrien Development Cooperatve Ltd. Retrieved 20 May 2009. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ a b Pierpont, Nina (March 7, 2006). "Wind Turbine Syndrome: Testimony before the New York State Legislature Energy Committee". Save Western NY. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hamilton, Tyler (December 15, 2009). "Wind Gets Clean Bill of Health: Turbines Do Not Make People Sick, Industry-Funded Study of Impacts Concludes". TorontoStar.com. Toronto, Canada: Toronto Star. pp. B1–B2. Retrieved 16 December 2009.
  10. ^ a b "Vestas: Life Cycle Assessments (LCA)". Retrieved 2008-02-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/ug33477443j40vx4/
  12. ^ ""Impact of Wind Generation in Ireland on the Operation of Conventional Plant and the Economic Implications"" (PDF). ESB National Grid. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2008-01-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Gross, Robert; Heptonstall, Philip; Anderson, Dennis; Green, Tim; Leach, Matthew; Skea, Jim (2006). The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency (PDF). UK Energy Research Council. p. iii. ISBN 1 90314 404 3. Retrieved 2010-07-27. it is unambiguously the case that wind energy can displace fossil fuel-based generation, reducing both fuel use and carbon dioxide emissions {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ^ Nate Hagens (October 19, 2006). "Energy from Wind: A Discussion of the EROI Research". pp. Figure 2. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
  15. ^ American Wind Energy Association (2009). Annual Wind Industry Report, Year Ending 2008 pp. 9-10.
  16. ^ "RENEWABLE ENERGY — Wind Power's Contribution to Electric Power Generation and Impact on Farms and Rural Communities (GAO-04-756)" (PDF). United States Government Accountability Office. 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-21. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ^ "Wind energy Frequently Asked Questions". British Wind Energy Association. Retrieved 2006-04-21.
  18. ^ Forest clearance for Meyersdale, Pa., wind power facility
  19. ^ Anon (2 February 2007). "Wind farm may 'damage' island bog". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
  20. ^ Stevenson, Tony Struan (20 may 2009). "Bid to ban peatland wind farms comes under attack". Sunday Herald. newsquest (sunday herald) limited. Retrieved 20 may 2009. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  21. ^ a b Taylor, Phil. Rush On for 'Rare Earths' as U.S. Firms Seek to Counter Chinese Monopoly, New York Times, July 23, 2010. Quote: "But the turbines do not require permanent magnets to operate, and manufacturers will pay only so much to have them installed."
  22. ^ PBS News Hour, Dec. 14, 2009. "Are Rare Earth Minerals Too Costly for Environment?"
  23. ^ Neomax Neodymium Rare Earth Permanent Magnet: Energy Conservation and Taking Account of Environmental Concerns, Hitachi website. Retrieved July 24, 2010.
  24. ^ UK's most powerful wind farm could power Paisley
  25. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.02.011, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.02.011 instead.
  26. ^ a b "Cats Indoors! The American Bird Conservancy's Campaign for Safer Birds and Cats". National Audubon Society. Retrieved 2008-08-25. .
  27. ^ "Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air". UIT. 2008-09-14. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  28. ^ "Birds". Retrieved 2006-04-21.
  29. ^ Ruane, Laura (2008-11-06). "Newest air defense: Bird dogs". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
  30. ^ Lomborg, Bjørn (2001). The Skeptical Environmentalist. New York City: Cambridge University Press.
  31. ^ Emma Marris (10 May 2007). ""Wind farms' deadly reputation hard to shift"". Nature. pp. 447 126. doi:10.1038/447126a. Retrieved 2008-01-15. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Subscription required.
  32. ^ "Upland birds face displacement threat from poorly sited wind turbines". Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. 2009-09-26. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
  33. ^ "Audubon's Position on Wind Power". National Audubon Society. Retrieved 2008-09-05. [dead link]
  34. ^ "Existing Wind Power Siting Guidelines". Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies. 2007. Retrieved 2008-09-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Matthew McDermott. "Texas Wind Farm Uses NASA Radar to Prevent Bird Deaths" Treehugger. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
  36. ^ Andrew Dalton (December 7, 2010). Altamont Pass to Get Less-Deadly Wind Turbines sfist.
  37. ^ "Wind turbines a breeze for migrating birds". New Scientist (2504): 21. 2005. Retrieved 2006-04-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ M.Zagmajster, T.Jančar & J.Mlakar (2007): First records of dead bats (Chiroptera) from wind farms in Croatia. Nyctalus 12(2-3): 234-237
  39. ^ "Caution Regarding Placement of Wind Turbines on Wooded Ridge Tops" (PDF). Bat Conservation International. 4 January 2005. Retrieved 2006-04-21.
  40. ^ Arnett, Edward B. (2005). "Relationships between Bats and Wind Turbines in Pennsylvania and West Virginia: An Assessment of Fatality Search Protocols, Patterns of Fatality, and Behavioral Interactions with Wind Turbines" (PDF). Bat Conservation International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-02-10. Retrieved 2006-04-21. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ "Bats take a battering at wind farms", New Scientist, May 12, 2007
  42. ^ "Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines: Investigating the Causes and Consequences". US Geological Survey. Retrieved 2010-06-29.
  43. ^ Baerwald, Erin F (2008-08-26). "Barotrauma is a significant cause of bat fatalities at wind turbines". Current Biology. 18 (16): R695–R696. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.029. OCLC 252616082. PMID 18727900. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help) Laysource includes audio podcast of interview with author.
  44. ^ "B.C. study to help bats survive wind farms", National Wind Watch, September 23, 2008
  45. ^ "Effectiveness of Changing Wind Turbine Cut-in Speed to Reduce Bat Fatalities at Wind Facilities" (PDF). American Wind Energy Association. 2009-04-28. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
  46. ^ Aron, Jacob (2009-07-17). "Radar beams could protect bats from wind turbines". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
  47. ^ Nicholls, Barry (2007). "Bats Avoid Radar Installations: Could Electromagnetic Fields Deter Bats from Colliding with Wind Turbines?". PLoS ONE. 2 (3): e297. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000297. PMC 1808427. PMID 17372629. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  48. ^ The influence of large-scale wind power on global climate — PNAS
  49. ^ Wind farms impacting weather - Science Daily
  50. ^ Study finds offshore wind farms can co-exist with marine environment
  51. ^ UK Offshore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment
  52. ^ a b c d Craig, David (2007-11-30). "Summary of Wind Turbine Accident data". Caithness Windfarm Information Forum. Retrieved 2007-12-30. - Table of accidents, PDF format (anti-wind power)
  53. ^ Gipe, Paul (2007). "A Summary of Fatal Accidents in Wind Energy". Wind-Works.org. Retrieved 2007-12-30.
  54. ^ Gipe, Paul (2006). "Contemporary Mortality (Death) Rates in Wind Energy". Wind-Works.org. Retrieved 2007-12-30. - Table of fatalities, Microsoft Excel format (pro-wind power)
  55. ^ "Unfälle und Eiswurfgefährdung durch Windkraftanlagen" (in German). 30. November 2000. Archived from the original on 2007-11-21. Retrieved 2008-02-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  56. ^ Andrea VanValkenburg. "Wind turbine collapses in Altona". Press Republican.
  57. ^ Danish wind turbine collapses in storm
  58. ^ "Lightning Damage". NGup Rotor Blades. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
  59. ^ ""Send us your burnouts. We accept trade-ins."". Moorsyde Wind Farm Action Group. Retrieved 2008-01-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  60. ^ "Pictures: Safety". Industrial Wind Action Group. Retrieved 2008-03-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  61. ^ "Wind Turbine Accidents Database" (in Template:De icon). 2007-11-26. Retrieved 2007-12-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  62. ^ "Experts try to determine wind farm blaze cause". ABC South East SA. 2006-01-23. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
  63. ^ "Edenhope and Ngarkat fires". Naracoorte Herald. 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-01-07. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
  64. ^ Gipe, Paul (1995). Wind Energy Comes of Age. John Wiley and Sons. p. 560. ISBN 047110924X. The total mortality rate, admittedly based on scanty data from a young technology, is 0.23 death per terawatt-hour.
  65. ^ Gipe, Paul (2006). "Contemporary Mortality (Death) Rates in Wind Energy". Wind-Works.org. Retrieved 2007-12-30. I reported in Wind Energy comes of Age a mortality rate of 0.27 deaths per TWh. However ... in the mid-1990s the mortally rate was actually 0.4 per TWh.
  66. ^ Severe Accidents in the Energy Sector, Paul Scherrer Institut, 2001. "Chap. 6.: External Costs — Environment, Health and Safety Issues". Nuclear Electricity. Uranium Information Centre Ltd. 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-01-07. Retrieved 2008-02-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  67. ^ Rod Thompson (May 20, 2006). ""Wind turbine lights have opponents seeing sparks"". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved 2008-01-15. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  68. ^ Wind farms are not only beautiful, they're absolutely necessary
  69. ^ "Tourism blow for windfarm". Sunday Mirror. 2003-05-30. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
  70. ^ Young, Kathryn (2007-08-03). "Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists". Edmonton Journal. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
  71. ^ Zhou, Renjie (2007-08-14). "Residents of Inner Mongolia Find New Hope in the Desert". Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 2008-11-04. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  72. ^ "Centre d'interprétation du cuivre de Murdochville". Retrieved 2008-11-19. - The Copper Interpretation Centre of Murdochville, Canada features tours of a wind turbine on Miller Mountain
  73. ^ Pagano, Margareta (Sunday, 2 August 2009). "Are wind farms a health risk? US scientist identifies 'wind turbine syndrome'". London: independent.co.uk. Retrieved 29 April 2010. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  74. ^ van Eerten, Thijs Westerbeek (28 Dec 2008). "Do wind farms threaten marine life?". News Focus. Expatica Communications. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  75. ^ "Noise from Wind Turbines - The Facts". RenewableUK. 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  76. ^ Keen, Judy (2008-11-03). "Neighbors at odds over noise from wind turbines". USA Today.
  77. ^ http://www.kselected.com/?page_id=6560
  78. ^ http://www.mlive.com/news/bay-city/index.ssf/2009/06/wind_turbines_create_bad_buzz.html
  79. ^ "Saw teeth make wind turbines quieter". University of Twente. 3 September 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  80. ^ Dana Childs (December 20, 2006). ""Wind energy scores major legal victory in U.S."". Retrieved 2008-01-15.
  81. ^ North American Windpower, May 2007. "Sound Defense For A Wind Turbine Farm".
  82. ^ Associated Press, 3 February 2009. "NW Missouri man sues Deere, wind energy company".
  83. ^ Phil Ray, Altoona Mirror, 27 March 2009. "Charges against wind companies upheld".
  84. ^ Anne Ravana, Maine Public Broadcasting Network, 7 August 2009. "Discontent of Mars Hill residents leads to lawsuit against First Wind".
  85. ^ Ministry of the Environment, Ontario (October 2008) "Noise Guidelines for Wind Farms"
  86. ^ Ministry of the Environment, Ontario (June 9, 2009). "Wind Turbines – Proposed Requirements and Setbacks"
  87. ^ Government of Ontario (September 24, 2009). "Ontario Makes It Easier, Faster To Grow Green Energy"
  88. ^ General Purpose Standing Committee No. 5, Parliament of New South Wales (December 16, 2009). "Final Report, Rural Wind Farms".
  89. ^ National Health and Medical Research Council (July 2010). Wind Turbines and Health public statement.
  90. ^ Julia M. Gohlke, Sharon H. Hrynkow, and Christopher J. Portier. "Health, Economy, and Environment: Sustainable Energy Choices for a Nation". Environ Health Perspect 2008 Jun;116(6):A236-7.
  91. ^ Yomiuri Shimbun (November 29, 2009). "Govt to study effects of wind farms on health".
  92. ^ a b Frits van den Berg, Eja Pedersen, Jelte Bouma, and Roel Bakker, "Visual and acoustic impact of wind turbine farms on residents", University of Groningen, June 3, 2008.
  93. ^ Pedersen and Persson Waye, 2007, "Wind turbine noise, annoyance and self-reported health and well being in different living environments", Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64 (7): 480-486.
  94. ^ Pierpont, Nina (March 7, 2006). 'Wind Turbine Syndrome. Testimony before the New York State Legislature Energy Committee'.
  95. ^ Committee on Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Projects, National Research Council (2007). Environmental Impacts of Wind-Energy Projects, p. 158-9.
  96. ^ W. David Colby, Robert Dobie, Geoff Leventhall, David M. Lipscomb, Robert J. McCunney, Michael T. Seilo, Bo Søndergaard. "Wind Turbine Sound and Health Effects: An Expert Panel Review", Canadian Wind Energy Association, December 2009.

Further reading

  • Rogers, Anthony L. (June 2002, Amended March 2004). "Wind Turbine Noise Issues (white paper)" (PDF). Renewable Energy Research Laboratory, Center for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA 01003. Retrieved 15 January 2010. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) [dead link]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_wind_power&oldid=402806098"