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Cambridge Philosophical Texts in Context

Meditations on First Philosophy

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Descartes's Meditations on First Philosophy , the fundamental and originating work of the modern era in Western philosophy, is presented here in Donald Cress's completely revised edition of his well-established translation, bringing this version even closer to Descartes's original, while maintaining its clear and accessible style.

59 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1641

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René Descartes

1,395 books2,139 followers
Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) and Principles of Philosophy (1644), main works of French mathematician and scientist René Descartes, considered the father of analytic geometry and the founder of modern rationalism, include the famous dictum "I think, therefore I am."

A set of two perpendicular lines in a plane or three in space intersect at an origin in Cartesian coordinate system. Cartesian coordinate, a member of the set of numbers, distances, locates a point in this system. Cartesian coordinates describe all points of a Cartesian plane.

From given sets, {X} and {Y}, one can construct Cartesian product, a set of all pairs of elements (x, y), such that x belongs to {X} and y belongs to {Y}.

Cartesian philosophers include Antoine Arnauld.



René Descartes, a writer, highly influenced society. People continue to study closely his writings and subsequently responded in the west. He of the key figures in the revolution also apparently influenced the named coordinate system, used in planes and algebra.

Descartes frequently sets his views apart from those of his predecessors. In the opening section of the Passions of the Soul , a treatise on the early version of now commonly called emotions, he goes so far to assert that he writes on his topic "as if no one had written on these matters before." Many elements in late Aristotelianism, the revived Stoicism of the 16th century, or earlier like Saint Augustine of Hippo provide precedents. Naturally, he differs from the schools on two major points: He rejects corporeal substance into matter and form and any appeal to divine or natural ends in explaining natural phenomena. In his theology, he insists on the absolute freedom of act of creation of God.

Baruch Spinoza and Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz later advocated Descartes, a major figure in 17th century Continent, and the empiricist school of thought, consisting of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume, opposed him. Leibniz and Descartes, all well versed like Spinoza, contributed greatly. Descartes, the crucial bridge with algebra, invented the coordinate system and calculus. Reflections of Descartes on mind and mechanism began the strain of western thought; much later, the invention of the electronic computer and the possibility of machine intelligence impelled this thought, which blossomed into the Turing test and related thought. His stated most in §7 of part I and in part IV of Discourse on the Method .

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Profile Image for Manny.
Author 38 books15.3k followers
October 6, 2021
I bought a copy of this famous book for a few francs at the Plainpalais flea market, and it had been lying on the shelf for a while. Well, I thought to myself, why not read it? The Introduction made the structure clear. First, M. Descartes presents his Meditations; then there's a series of Objections from various other distinguished mid-seventeeth century men of letters (no women, needless to say), each one followed by a Response. Descartes made a point of telling me that I had to read the whole thing to form a proper view of what he had done. I soon learned from the annotations in the margin that the book's previous owner had been less ambitious, and only read the Meditations, which indeed account for less than a quarter of the text. I decided I was not going to wuss out, and followed the author's instructions.

If you are also planning to do this, I will tell you now that the Meditations are an easy, pleasant read, but the Objections and Responses are often mind-numbingly dull. Descartes has set out his stall and says he can explain Life, the Universe and Everything. His critics are, understandably, sceptical. They tell him he's full of shit. He tells them they just haven't read it carefully enough. They tell him they have so read it carefully enough. (One Objector claimed to have read it seven times). Descartes tells them that in that case they're fucking morons. They tell him that he's the fucking moron. All of this in late Renaissance Latin, which has been translated into flowery seventeenth century French. Repetitious doesn't begin to cover it. In ABBA's immortal words, it goes on and on and on and on and on and on and on.

Although the book is way too long, hearing the same point made nineteen different times in slightly different ways does force you to think about it. At first, I was also extremely sceptical about Descartes's arguments. Briefly, they go like this. We start by considering what we could be certain about, and the only thing that seems really certain is that I must exist, since I am thinking: if I didn't exist, there wouldn't be anyone here to be confused. (I was surprised to find that the author of the Seventh Objections found fault even with this part). It seems we can go no further. But, aha! I discover that I have in my mind the idea of God. God is by definition the most perfect conceivable being, and since I am not perfect I couldn't have thought of this idea myself, so I must have received it from God. Also, part of being perfect is existing. In fact, it's not even possible to conceive of God not existing. So for both these reasons, God exists, and He is good, because He is perfect, so He couldn't be deceiving me by making me believe there is a physical world if there weren't one. Hence the physical world exists. Moreover, since we can clearly conceive of a mind existing without a body, and a body existing without a mind, they must be different things. So the soul exists as well. You can find it all briefly summarised in pseudo-mathematical form by Descartes himself at the end of the Second Responses, here.

The Objectors were quick to point out problems. Some of the more entertaining ones are the following: Thomas Aquinas explained what was wrong with the Ontological Argument back in the thirteen century; many savages have no concept of God; we appear to have received this idea not from Divine inspiration, but by being taught it; anyone who's learned some mathematics knows it's quite possible to think you have a clear notion of two things being different, when in fact they are the same; there are places in the Bible where God arguably is deceiving people; our senses sometimes deceive us too, for example telling us to eat things that will be bad for us; and it seems entirely possible that thought is something that happens in your brain, meaning that your mind is actually part of your body. These guys were not dumb, and I found myself agreeing with them most of the time. It even occurred to me to wonder if the whole thing was some kind of fixed fight, where Descartes was really trying to cast doubt on the idea of God's existence by turning himself into a ridiculous strawman who could be attacked by all and sundry.

After a while, though, a strange thing happened: I started to think that maybe it wasn't so obvious everything he was saying was nonsense. Evidently, a sophisticated twenty-first century reader isn't going to agree to it when it's put in those exact words. But change things a little to take account of our updated scientific vocabulary, and it's surprising what you get. We don't believe the world is real because God is good and wouldn't lie to us; but we do believe that evolution has tuned our senses to report things about our environment which will be useful to us. We don't believe we can prove the existence of God using the argument that He is by definition the sum of all perfections and hence must exist. On the other hand, it becomes clear from the discussion that Descartes needs God to explain the continued existence of the world. (There is much talk of how God causes everything to exist, raising the delicate technical question of whether He causes Himself to exist too). Nowadays, we aren't so interested in causes, and we explain the continued existence of the world using physical theories. The odd thing is that many scientists have a strong belief that there is an ultimate physical theory which explains everything, and if pressed to justify this claim their reasoning won't be so different from the Ontological Argument. Some theories are better than other theories: so there must be a best theory, which has to describe the real world because otherwise it would be no use at all. In actual fact, people don't know how to find this theory, and have spent many decades unsuccessfully trying to unify general relativity and quantum field theory, currently our two coequal best theories. But even if they don't know where the perfect theory is, physicists are sure it must exist.

The distinction between the body and the mind is even more interesting. Indeed, as many of the Objectors are saying even in 1641, there's every reason to suppose that thought is something which happens in your brain. So does it follow that the mind is part of the body? Well, some people will say that's the end of the story, but many others will disagree. We're now all familiar with computers. The body looks a lot like a computer, and the mind looks a lot like computation. Is computation just something that happens in computers? In fact, it's not obvious that it's so simple. A computer can perform a piece of computation, but then a second computer can perform an identical computation. Many people's intuition is that it's the same computation instantiated in two places; and even if you never ran it at all, you still seem to feel that it exists in some sense. There does appear to be a difference between physical processes and computations, and the argument we use is again formally similar to the one Descartes uses: we can imagine computation without any physical process running it, so it must be something different.

As you can see, I'm hesitant to recommend reading this book. Some parts of it are downright painful. But I definitely wouldn't tell you to ignore it either.
Profile Image for Orhan Pelinkovic.
101 reviews261 followers
October 8, 2020
The father of modern philosophy, Rene Descartes, was left intellectually unfulfilled after receiving one of the finest educations available in the 17th century. The result of this, and his inexhaustible curiosity, led him to travel throughout Europe, frequently changing his place of residence in search for a higher knowledge, while only to realize that the knowledge of the truth is best to be found within.

The Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) is composed of six meditations, in which, Descartes, applies his method of reasoning introduced in the Discourse on the Method, which can be considered this book's prequel.

Beginning the meditations required, Descartes, to release his mind from: all emotions, any convictions previously derived at from his senses and thoughts, and belief in the existence of his body and the material surrounding. This way, Descartes, clears his mind and brings it to a zero state and then works his way up to arrive at conclusions using his method.

In these meditating sessions, that were portrayed to have lasted for six days, Descartes, implemented his method of doubt, and proves, once again, as he did in Discourse on the Method, the existence of himself and his thoughts - a thinking thing. But now he has taken on a task to prove the existence of something outside of himself that is material in nature and another being. He goes on to prove that a perfect God exists, and that he is even surer of God's existence than the existence of his own body. The closer we approach the end of the book, Descartes, ends up "proving" the reality and existence or many material things and other metaphysical beliefs. These numerous proofs watered down his, once, stringent method of doubt.

Nevertheless, this was a captivating read for me and I was completely absorbed by, Descartes, thoughts and contemplations. They had a strong impression on me and left me pondering his ideas after my daily dose of reading. I even felt the next day an anticipation to continue with the following meditation (chapter). Perhaps, one way of judging the quality of a book is the feeling it gives you while you're not reading it.

(4.5/5)
Profile Image for Ahmad Sharabiani.
9,563 reviews462 followers
September 9, 2019
Meditationes de prima philosophia = Meditations on First Philosophy, René Descartes
Meditations on First Philosophy is a philosophical treatise written by René Descartes first published in Latin in 1641. The book is made up of six meditations, in which Descartes first discards all belief in things which are not absolutely certain, and then tries to establish what can be known for sure. The meditations were written as if he was meditating for 6 days: each meditation refers to the last one as "yesterday". However, Descartes did not take 6 days to complete this work; it actually took several years.

تاریخ نخستین خوانش: سال 1982 میلادی
عنوان: ت‍ام‍لات‌ در ف‍ل‍س‍ف‍ه‌ اول‍ی‌؛ نویسنده: رن‍ه‌ دک‍ارت‌؛ مت‍رج‍م: اح‍م‍د اح‍م‍دی‌؛ ت‍ه‍ران‌: م‍رک‍ز ن‍ش‍ر دان‍ش‍گ‍اه‍ی‌‏‫‏‏، 1361؛ 138 ص؛ چاپ دوم 1369؛ در 102 ص؛ چاپ دیگر: ت‍ه‍ران‌: س‍ازم‍ان‌ م‍طال‍ع‍ه‌ و ت‍دوی‍ن‌ ک‍ت‍ب‌ ع‍ل‍وم‌ ان‍س‍ان‍ی‌ دان‍ش‍گ‍اه‍ه‍ا (س‍م‍ت‌)‏‫، چاپ سوم 1381؛ در 112 ص؛‬ چاپ چهارم 1384؛ چاپ ششم 1385 ؛ چاپ هفتم 1387؛ چاپ دوازدهم 1394؛ چاپ سیزدهم 1395؛ شابک: 9789644596537؛ موضوع: فلسفه ی دکارت - سده 17 م

در اين کتاب عناوين زير مورد خوانش قرار خواهند گرفت: «اجمالی از زندگی دکارت»، «عصر دکارت»، «موقعیت فلسفه دکارت»، «رساله تاملات خلاصه تاملات ششگانه». مترجم کتاب: (حجت الاسلام و مدیر سازمان سمت و عضو شورای عالی انقلاب فرهنگی و نماینده مجلس در دوره هفتم). ا. شربیانی
Profile Image for فؤاد.
1,085 reviews2,077 followers
December 13, 2017
دكارت در ابتدا خوب آغاز مى كنه و ميگه بايد در همه چيز شك كنم كه مبادا اعتقادى بدون دليل رو بپذيرم. و از شك مطلق سلوك فلسفى رو آغاز مى كنه. به اين شك عامدانه، ميگه "شك دستورى" يا "متدولوژيك"، در مقابل شك واقعى.
اما بعد چنان قدم هاى بدى بر ميداره كه به كلى آدم رو مأيوس مى كنه.
مثلاً ادعا می کنه که مفاهیم "واضح و متمايز" همیشه صادق و مطابق واقع هستن. چرا؟ چون خدا فریبکار نیست و من رو فريب نميده. در نتیجه وقتی یه مفهوم روشن و متمایز در ذهن من گذاشته، این مفهوم حتماً واقعیت داره.
اما معلومه كه اين استدلال فرع بر مقدمات بسيار زياديه (از جمله اين كه خدا هست، دارای آگاهیه، از وجود من خبر داره، قدرت داره من رو از خطا نگه داره، خبيث و بدخواه نيست، حكمت داره، اينكه من فريب نخورم در حكمتش ضروريه و...) كه بسياری از این مقدمات با روش فلسفى غير قابل اثباته و به خاطر همين در گرداب بحث هاى كلامى غير ضرورى فرو ميره و دست و پا ميزنه. نشون به اون نشون كه اسقف باركلى به راحتى "فريبكار نبودن خداوند" رو انكار ميكنه، و نتیجه می گیره که تمام ادراکات ما ذهنی هستن و ما به ازای خارجی ندارن.
تلاش هاش، در جاهايى واقعاً قابل تقديره، اما قطعاً نمى تونه اون جورى كه خود دكارت اصرار داره، هر شكاكى رو متقاعد بكنه.
July 30, 2019
This treatise contains metaphysical meditations on the existence of god, the nature of the human mind and the essence and existence of material things. It was written in 1639-40 in Latin and was published in 1641 in Paris, followed by second Latin edition in 1642 in Amsterdam and a French translation in 1647, edited and approved by Descartes himself.

A collection of Objections and Replies accompanied the main text , where various philosophers and theologians (among them Thomas Hobbes) expressed their objections, while Descartes's sought to provide the necessary clarifications and explanations.

Το περιεχόμενο της συγκεκριμένης πραγματείας αφορά μεταφυσικούς στοχασμούς περί της ύπαρξης του θεού, του ανθρώπινου πνεύματος και περί της ουσίας και ύπαρξης των υλικών πραγμάτων. Γράφτηκε κατά τα έτη 1639 - 40, στα λατινικά και εκδόθηκε στα 1641 στο Παρίσι, ενώ ακολούθησαν, όσο ζούσε ο Descartes, μια δεύτερη λατινική έκδοση στα 1642 στο Άμστερνταμ και μια γαλλική μετάφραση στα 1647, επιμελημένη και εγκεκριμένη από τον ίδιο. Μια συλλογή από Αντιρρήσεις και Απαντήσεις συνόδευε το βασικό κείμενο των στοχασμών, όπου διάφοροι φιλόσοφοι και θεολόγοι (ανάμεσα στους οποίους και ο Thomas Hobbes) εξέφραζαν τις ενστάσεις τους και στις οποίες με τις απαντήσεις του ο Descartes, προσπαθούσε να παράσχει τις απαραίτητες διευκρινίσεις και επεξηγήσεις.

Η ελληνική έκδοση είναι εξαιρετική. Η μετάφραση και ο σχολιασμός των Στοχασμών καθιστά το δυσνόητο κείμενο προσιτό στον αναγνώστη. Πέρα από το βασικό κείμενο, περιλαμβάνει κάποια συμπληρωματικά (επιστολή προς τη Σορβόννη, πρόλογος του Descartes προς τους αναγνώστες του, μια σύνοψη των έξι στοχασμών, ένα μικρό δείγμα από τις Αντιρρήσεις και Απαντήσεις. Επίσης υπάρχουν από τον μεταφραστή πολύ χρήσιμα εννοιολογικά και μεταφραστικά σχόλια, γλωσσάρι, εκτενές χρονολόγιο και μια πολύ κατατοπιστική εισαγωγή και εκτενέστατη βιβλιογραφία). Πολύ χρήσιμο βιβλίο. Θεωρώ πως, αν κάποιος ενδιαφέρεται να φτιάξει μια φιλοσοφική βιβλιοθήκη, θα ήταν χρήσιμο να το συμπεριλάβει στη συλλογή του.

Παρακάτω παραθέτω αυτά που σε γενικές γραμμές κατάφερα να καταλάβω διαβάζοντας το κείμενο, έχω σίγουρα λάθη, οπότε καλύτερα μην διαβάσετε όσα γράφω εδώ, αλλά πάτε κατευθείαν, αν σας ενδιαφέρει το θέμα, στο βιβλίο. Απλά στην ουσία παραθέτω κάποιες σημειώσεις που κράτησα και τίποτα περισσότερο:

1. Περί όσων μπορούν να τεθούν εν αμφιβόλω.

Όσα προσλαμβάνουμε μέσω των αισθήσεών μας ως αληθινά μπορεί να να είναι εσφαλμένα. Αυτό δεν απέχει πολύ από εκείνον που ενώ κοιμάται, ονειρεύεται πως είναι ξύπνιος ή από εκείνους τους ψυχικά ασθενείς που φαντάζονται πως είναι πράγματα που δεν είναι. Όλα ωστόσο τα φανταστικά πράγματα είναι καμωμένα από άλλα υπαρκτά, ωστόσο είναι συνδυασμένα έτσι ώστε το τελικό αποτέλεσμα δεν υπάρχει πουθενά στην πραγματικότητα. Είμαστε λοιπόν πλασμένοι έτσι από τον θεό, ώστε να καταλήγουμε σε πλάνες; Αυτό δεν θα συνεπάγετο πως ο θεός δεν είναι αγαθός; Προκειμένου λοιπόν να φτάσουμε στην αλήθεια ας υποθέσουμε για λίγο πως δεν υπάρχει ένας θεός - πηγή της αλήθειας, αλλά ένας κακόβουλος δαίμονας και ας προσπαθήσουμε να βρούμε την αλήθεια με στήριγμα τις δικές μας δυνάμεις:

" αν δεν είναι στην εξουσία μου να γνωρίσω κάτι αληθές, τουλάχιστον θα φροντίσω σθεναρά, αυτό που εξαρτάται από μένα: να μη συγκατατίθεμαι σε ψεύδη ".

2. Περί της φύσης του ανθρώπινου πνεύματος: ότι είναι γνωστότερο από το σώμα.

Αν αμφιβάλλω για τα πάντα, τότε η μόνη βεβαιότητα που μπορώ να έχω είναι πως δεν υπάρχει τίποτα βέβαιο. Εγώ ο ίδιος παράγω αυτή τη σκέψη, κανένας έξω από εμένα δεν μου την υπαγορεύει. Είμαι λοιπόν σε θέση να κατέχω μια αλήθεια. Συνεπώς Είμαι. Συνεπώς υπάρχω. Αλλά το ερώτημα που προκύπτει έπειτα από αυτό είναι: Τι είμαι; Είμαι ένα αληθινό, υπαρκτό, σκεπτόμενο πράγμα. Η σκέψη μου ανήκει, αποτελεί αναπόσπαστο τμήμα μου. Όλα τα άλλα (σώμα, ψυχή, αισθήσεις) είναι αμφίβολα οπότε η βεβαιότητα της ύπαρξής μου προέρχεται από το γεγονός ότι σκέπτομαι:

"Εγώ είμαι εγώ υπάρχω τούτο είναι βέβαιο. Για πόσο χρόνο όμως; Για όσο χρόνο σκέπτομαι. Διότι ενδέχεται ίσως, αν απείχα από κάθε σκέψη, αυτοστιγμεί να έπαυα ολόκληρος να υπάρχω. Δεν δέχομαι τώρα παρά ό,τι αληθεύει αναγκαία".

Άλλες λέξεις για τον όρο σκεπτόμενο ον είναι: πνεύμα, έλλογη ψυχή, νους ή Λόγος. Ο ατελέστερος τρόπος για να συλλάβουμε την ύπαρξη ενός πράγματος είναι μέσα από μια ατελή και συγκεχυμένη εποπτεία του πνεύματος (δηλαδή μέσα από τις αισθήσεις ή την φαντασία) και ο ασφαλέστερος είναι μέσα από μια σαφή και διακριτή εποπτεία του πνεύματος, δηλαδή από την ικανότητα που έχει το πνεύμα, ο νους μας να κρίνει τι είναι αληθινό και υπαρκτό, άσχετα με αυτό που βλέπει ή φαντάζεται.

Δηλαδή με πολύ απλά λόγια, κάτι υπαρκτό μπορούμε να το δούμε, να το αγγίξουμε να το γευτούμε ή να το φανταστούμε ένα σώμα πχ ένα κερί. Ωστόσο κάτι μπορεί να είναι υπαρκτό ακόμα και όταν δεν μπορούμε να κάνουμε όλα τα παραπάνω πχ η ψυχή. Πώς μπορώ να ξέρω λοιπόν αν κάτι υπάρχει ή δεν υπάρχει στα αλήθεια; Μέσω του νου, μέσα από το γεγονός ότι αυτό το κάτι μπορεί να νοηθεί, μέσα από εκεί μπορεί να επιβεβαιωθεί η αλήθεια και η ύπαρξή του. Συνεπώς καίτοι μπορεί να ξενίζει, ισχύει το εξής: μπορώ να αντιληφθώ με μεγαλύτερη ευκολία το πνεύμα μου κι ας μην είναι απτό και ορατό από κάτι που μπορώ να αγγίξω ή να δω αλλά το οποίο χωρίς την εποπτεία του νου/ πνεύματος μπορεί να είναι ψευδές και πλανερό.

3 Περί του θεού, ότι υπάρχει.

Υπάρχει θεός; Κι αν ναι είναι ένας απατεώνας; Για να απαντηθεί αυτό πρέπει να κατηγοριοποιήσουμε τις σκέψεις που υπάρχουν στο νου μας:

Υπάρχουν οι ιδέες ως εικόνες των πραγμάτων, οι οποίες είναι ατελείς γιατί ομοιάζουν με τα πράγματα, αλλά ούτε ταυτίζονται με τα πράγματα, ούτε αποτελούν πιστές αναπαραστάσεις τους. Υπάρχουν επίσης οι βουλήσεις ή συναισθήματα και κρίσεις. Κι αυτά θα μπορούσαν να θεωρηθούν ως (ή είναι) ιδέες ενός πράγματος οι οποίες επιπλέον περιέχουν τα δικά μου συναισθήματα και ψυχικές διαθέσεις και κρίσεις απέναντι στο πράγμα.

Συμπέρασμα: Οι ιδέες είναι σκέψεις που λειτουργούν ως μεσάζοντες ανάμεσα στην εξωτερική πραγματικότητα και το σκεπτόμενο ον (το ανθρώπινο πνεύμα).

Ωστόσο ο φιλόσοφος επεκτείνει τον ορισμό των ιδεών διαχωρίζοντάς τες σε τρεις κατηγορίες:

1. Έμφυτες: Είναι αυτές που υπάρχουν εκ γενετής στο πνεύμα μας και απεικονίζουν το αληθές, το αιώνιο, το αμετάβλητο.

2. Επείσακτες: όσες προέρχονται από τα εξωτερικά πράγματα. Εκεί υπάρχει πάντα η πιθανότητα να σφάλλουμε, είναι όλα όσα συλλαμβάνουμε μέσω των αισθήσεων που συχνά δεν απεικονίζουν πιστά τα πράγματα, όπως πχ ο ήλιος που τον αντιλαμβανόμαστε λόγω της τεράστιας απόστασης ως ένα μικρό σώμα.

3. Πεποιημένες. Αυτές που φτιάχνουμε εμείς οι ίδιοι και αποτελούν δικές μας επινοήσεις.

Για να επιβεβαιώσει την ύπαρξη του θεού ο Descartes καταλήγει στο επιχείρημα πως τίποτα δεν μπορεί να δημιουργηθεί από το μηδέν και το ατελέστερο, αυτό που περιέχει μέσα του λιγότερη πραγματικότητα, δεν μπορεί να δημιουργήσει το τελειότερο και αυτά δεν ισχύει μόνο για τη δημιουργία των πραγμάτων αλλά και για τη δημιουργία των ιδεών που σχετίζονται με τα πράγματα.

(σσ. Ο Descartes χρησιμοποιεί το όρο υποκειμενική πραγματικότητα (αλλιώς μορφική ή ενεργή) για να ορίσει την πραγματικότητα του υποκειμένου δηλαδή του πράγματος που κατέχει αυτόνομη και ανεξάρτητη ύπαρξη και τον όρο αντικειμενική πραγματικότητα για να ορίσει την πραγματικότητα του ομοιώματός του σελ. 234. Αυτό είναι μια σημαντική διευκρίνιση γιατί στην καθημερινή μας ορολογία ο "αντικειμενικός" είναι αυτός που βρίσκεται πιο κοντά στην αλήθεια των πραγμάτων και ο "υποκειμενικός" είναι αυτός που εκφράζει μια ιδέα της οποίας η ορθότητα πρέπει να ελεγχθεί).

Η ιδέα του θεού δεν προέρχεται από εμένα τον ίδιο, ωστόσο υπάρχω και έχω μέσα μου την ιδέα ενός τελειότατου όντος, συνεπώς υπάρχει και κάποιος άλλος πέρα από εμένα στον κόσμο. Αυτός είναι ο πυρήνας της συλλογιστικής με την οποία ο φιλόσοφος καταλήγει στην απόδειξη της ύπαρξης του θεού.

4. Περί του αληθούς και του ψευδούς.

Εφόσον ο θεός υπάρχει και είναι τέλειος και αγαθός, από που προέρχονται όλες οι πλάνες και τα σφάλματα; Η πλάνη δεν είναι δημιούργημα του θεού αλλά ανθρώπινο ελάττωμα που προκύπτει από την περιορισμένη ικανότητα κρίσης του αληθούς που διαθέτουμε ως άνθρωποι. Δεν είμαστε τέλειοι συνεπώς μπορούμε να υποπέσουμε σε σφάλματα. Δεν μπορούμε να ξέρουμε τον λόγο που ο θεός μας έπλασε έτσι. Είμαστε μόνο ένα μικρό τμήμα από το σύμπαν των πραγμάτων που δημιούργησε ο θεός.

Ο ανθρώπινος νους έχει την ικανότητα να γνωρίζει (αίσθηση, φαντασία, καθαρή νόηση) και η ανθρώπινη βούληση μας εξασφαλίζει το αυτεξούσιο, την ικανότητα να επιθυμούμε, να αρνούμαστε, να αμφιβάλλουμε, να συμφωνούμε, να διαφωνούμε. Η βούληση είναι ένας τρόπος σκέψης που αποδεικνύει πως είμαστε πλασμένοι κατ' εικόνα και καθ' ομοίωσιν με τον θεό, ο νους προτείνει και εμείς επιλέγουμε χωρίς να έχουμε την αίσθηση πως κάποιος άλλος μας υπαγορεύει ή μας επιβάλλει τις απο��άσεις μας. Η βούληση μας εξασφαλίζει την ελευθερία που διαφορετικά δεν θα είχαμε αν βλέπαμε πάντα μόνο το σαφές και το αγαθό. Τότε όλα θα ήταν μονόδρομος και δεν θα είχαμε την ελευθερία να επιλέγουμε. Όταν όμως βούλομαι για πράγματα που δεν κατανοώ, τότε πέφτω σε σφάλματα και πλάνες.

Έχω την ικανότητα να βρω την αλήθεια, αλλά δεν την χρησιμοποιώ σωστά. Για να καταλήγω σε σωστές αποφάσεις, επιλογές, συμπεράσματα πρέπει να κάνω σωστή χρήση του αυτεξούσιου που διαθέτω, πρέπει να υπάρχει συνεργασία της βούλησης με το νου.

Συμπέρασμα: Δεν μου έδωσε ο θεός μια κακή ικανότητα, αλλά μια καλή ικανότητα την οποία δεν χρησιμοποιώ ορθά, συνεπώς καταλήγω σε σφάλματα.

5. Περί της ουσίας των υλικών πραγμάτων και ξανά περί του θεού, ότι υπάρχει.

Τώρα που ξέρουμε τι πρέπει να αποφεύγουμε στην αναζήτησή μας για την αλήθεια, έπεται το ερώτημα: τι μπορούμε να γνωρίζουμε με σιγουριά γι�� τα υλικά πράγματα;

Ποια είναι η ουσία τους: Αν μια ιδέα που έχω για τα πράγματα είναι σαφής και διακριτή, τότε αυτή είναι αληθής. Αυτό σημαίνει πως προέρχεται από κάτι το υπαρκτό από ένα πράγμα που υπάρχει πραγματικά. Και οι αλήθειες που είναι πιο βέβαιες από όλες τις άλλες είναι αυτές που έχουν να κάνουν με τα σχήματα, τους αριθμούς και γενικά τη γεωμετρία και την αριθμητική. Αυτή είναι η βάση για μια βέβαιη και αληθινή επιστήμη η οποία ωστόσο εξαρτάται από τη γνώση της ύπαρξης του θεού, η οποία είναι η σαφέστερη και πλέον διακριτή, ξεκάθαρη αλήθεια. Γιατί αν αμφιβάλλουμε για την αλήθεια της ύπαρξης του θεού τότε δεν θα μπορούμε να είμαστε σίγουροι ούτε και για τις μαθηματικές αλήθειες.

6. Περί της ύπαρξης των υλικών πραγμάτων και περί της πραγματικής διάκρισης του πνεύματος από το σώμα.

Τα υλικά πράγματα ως αντικείμενο των καθαρών μαθηματικών μπορούν να υπάρξουν, αυτό έχει να κάνει με την ουσία των πραγμάτων όπως προκύπτει από τις σαφείς και διακριτές ιδιότητές τους, έτσι όπως τις συλλαμβάνει ο ανθρώπινος νους. Τι γίνεται όμως με το ζήτημα της ύπαρξης των υλικών πραγμάτων τα οποία συλλαμβάνω ασαφώς και συγκεχυμένα μέσω της φαντασίας και των αισθήσεων; Αυτά υπάρχουν; Ναι. Η φαντασία και η αίσθηση είναι τρόποι του σκέπτεσθαι και ανήκουν στο πνεύμα, αλλά είναι δευτερεύοντα και μη ουσιώδη συστατικά του πνεύματος. Στην καθαρή νόηση το πνεύμα στρέφεται στον εαυτό του. Στην φαντασία το πνεύμα στρέφεται προς κάποια σωματική μορφή. Ό,τι συλλαμβάνουμε χωρίς εικόνα είναι ιδέα του καθαρού πνεύματος (πχ ένα χιλιόγωνο) και ό,τι συλλαμβάνουμε με εικόνα είναι ιδέα της φαντασίας (πχ ένα πεντάγωνο).

Αφού πλέον έχουμε βρει έναν τρόπο να ορίζουμε με ασφάλεια τα αληθή, μπορούμε πλέον να μην αμφιβάλλουμε για όλα όσα αντιλαμβανόμαστε μέσα από τις αισθήσεις μας κι ας είναι ατελείς και συχνά απατηλές. Οι ιδέες των αισθητών πραγμάτων προέρχονται από σωματικά πράγματα. Γιατί; Γιατί δεν θα είχα τέτοιες ιδέες αν δεν υπήρχαν τα σωματικά πράγματα. Αν υπήρχαν μόνο αυτές οι ιδέες των αισθητών πραγμάτων και όχι τα ίδια τα σωματικά πράγματα τότε αυτό θα σήμαινε πως κάποιος έβαλε στο νου μου πλανερές ιδέες.

Ο θεός δεν γίνεται να το έκανε αυτό, γιατί δεν είναι πλανερός, άρα από κάπου προκύπτουν αυτές οι ιδέες: από τα υλικά, σωματικά, εκτακτά πράγματα, τα οποία είναι υπαρκτά και δημιουργημένα από αυτόν τον ίδιο τέλειο θεό που δεν είναι απατηλός. Η φύση που μου διδάσκει πως έχω υλικό σώμα, έχω πχ στομάχι μέσω του οποίου αισθάνομαι πείνα και πως αυτό συνεπάγεται την ανάγκη για τροφή, είναι δημιούργημα του θεού και περικλείει το σύνολο όλων των εκείνων των πραγμάτων που δημιουργήθηκαν από τον θεό.

Αυτά τα πράγματα που διδασκόμαστε από τη φύση, μπορεί, αν τα κρίνουμε απερίσκεπτα, να μας οδηγήσουν σε πλάνες, οι οποίες συχνά ξεκινούν από την παιδική μας ηλικίας, όταν νομίζουμε για παράδειγμα πως ένας αναμμένος πυρσός είναι μεγαλύτερος σε μέγεθος από τον ήλιο. Εκτός αυτού η φύση δεν είναι παντογνώστρια και είναι ατελής, όπως ατελής είναι και ο ίδιος ο άνθρωπος. Άλλωστε ο άνθρωπος ως σκεπτόμενο ον είναι αδιαίρετος. Αλλά ως προς την σωματική του ύπαρξη είναι διαιρετός, μπορεί να νοσεί, να έχει δυσλειτουργίες, ακόμα να ακρωτηριαστεί.

Ο Descartes πίστευε πως μέσα στον ανθρώπινο εγκέφαλο υπάρχει ένας μικρός χώρος και πως μόνο μέσα εκεί, και σε κανένα άλλο σημείο, συντελείται η ένωση του σώματος και του πνεύματος. Τον μικρό αυτό χώρο μέσα στον εγκέφαλο τον ονόμαζε κωνάριο ή επίφυση και πίστευε πως ήταν ένας αδένας που βρισκόταν στο κέν��ρο του εγκεφάλου.

Εφόσον λοιπόν η ανθρώπινη φύση αποτελείται από σύνθεση του πνεύματος με το σώμα, αναπόφευκτα είναι ατελής και μπορεί να πέφτει σε πλάνες. Απέναντι στις πλάνες μπορούμε ωστόσο να αντιτάξουμε τις αισθήσεις που συχνότατα, αν και όχι πάντα, δηλώνουν το αληθές, τη μνήμη που συνδέει τα παρόντα με όσα έχουν προηγηθεί και το νου που έχει τη δυνατότητα να διερευνά και να διαπιστώνει τις αιτίες της πλάνης.

Οπότε πλέον όλες εκείνες οι ακραίες και υπερβολικές, έως και γελοίες, αμφιβολίες που διατυπώθηκαν αρχικά, περί του τι είναι υπαρκτό και τι δεν είναι, δεν μας χρειάζονται πλέον. Έχουμε τώρα μια μέθοδο για να διαπιστώνουμε την αλήθεια και να διορθώνουμε τις ατέλειες της ανθρώπινης φύσης μας.
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اینکه همه چیز رو بریزیم دور و از صفر بنشینم فکر کنیم، خیلی جرات میخواد. شاید عاقلانه‌تر کار دنیا همین باشه. اینکه بودن خودم رو از فکر کردنم نتیجه بگیرم، قطعی‌ترین چیزی هست که میشه پذیرفت. دکارت از اینجا شروع می‌کنه ولی خوب پیش نمیره.

طرح کلی دکارت اینه که وجود و جوهر خودش رو بشناسه، بعد خدا رو، بعد دنیای خارج رو که با بدن شروع میکنه و به باقی اشیاء میرسه. دکارت از همون ابتدا نفس و بدن رو دو جوهر مستقل می‌دونه. به همین دلیل دوگانه‌گرایی دکارت رو جوهری می‌نامند. نفس جوهری مجرد و غیرمادی است.

دکارت تصویر ذهنی ما از خدا رو، پررنگ‌ترین تصویر ذهنی موجود و قوی‌ترین شاهد برای وجود خدا می‌دونه. این برهانی هست که بسیار شنیدیم. ولی اگر فکر می‌کنید این برهان رو میشه به همین سادگی خلاصه کرد یا اینکه همه چی رو در موردش توی کتاب‌های دینی مدرسه خوندید، در اشتباهید. برای اثبات وجود اشیاء خارجی، دکارت می‌کوشه جوهر متفکر ما رو از تخیل و تصویر اشیاء بیرونی متمایز کنه. و به این نتیجه می‌رسه جوهر متقکر ما برای فهم و تعقل نیازی به تخیل و متعاقباً تخیل اشیاء ممتد خارجی نداره، پس این امتداد که ربطی به جوهر متفکر نداره، متأثر از دنیای خارجی که واقعاً وجود داره.

دکارت در ابتدا به حواس و شهود ما از دنیای بیرون شدیداً شک می‌کنه. راه طولانی‌ای رو میره که دوباره به همین حواس و شهود اعتبار ببخشه. راهی که به نظرم معتبر نیست.

مترجم کتاب بسیار نکته‌سنجانه با پاورقی‌هایی‌ فراوان به فهم مطلب بسیار کمک می‌کنه. میشه گفت که این کتاب رو میشه راحت خوند.

مترجم Objective Reality رو «واقعیت ذهنی» ترجمه می‌کنه. پیشنهاد می‌کنم برای فهم بهتر کتاب، حتماً سعی کنید این عبارت رو در کنار Formal Reality به خوبی بفهمید. شاید با کمی مساحمه بشه، Objective Reality رو تصویر ذهنی دانست از چیزها. مثلاً تصویر ذهنی خورشید یا پری دریایی. هر دو Objective Reality دارند ولی تنها خورشید Formal Reality هم داره. تصویر ذهنی ما از خورشید می‌تونه به اندازه‌ی یه مشت باشه ولی Formal Reality خورشید سیاره‌ای است در فاصله‌ای مشخص از زمین و چندین بار بزرگ‌تر از زمین. سعی کنید خودتان از فهم این دو مفهموم مطمئن شوید و اگر برداشت من خطایی دارد، تصحیح کنید. یکی از دوستان بخشی از مقدمه‌ی کتاب دیگری از همین فیلسوف و همین مترجم رو جایی آپلود کرده که به دو مفهمومی که گفته شده و دیگر موارد مفیدی پرداخته:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/wpbe526isrc...

در ادامه بخش‌هایی از کتاب را آوردم که برای من حالت یاداشت‌برداری داشته ضمن خواندن.

نقل از کتاب:
حال فرض کنیم که هم‌اکنون در خوابیم و تمام این خصوصیات، یعنی گشودن چشم، حرکت دادن سر، و گشودن دستها و مانند اینها، پنداری‏های کاذبی بیش نیست و همچنین فرض کنیم که دستها و سراپای بدن ما آن طور که ما می‏بینیم نباشد.با وجود این، دست کم باید بپذیریم که آنچه در خواب می‏بینیم مانند تابلوها و تصاویری است که ساختن آنها جز در صورت مشابهت داشتن با اشیاء واقعی و حقیقی ممکن نیست و بدین ترتیب، دست کم این اشیاء عمومی یعنی چشمها، سر، دستها و سایر اعضا بدن، اشیائی است واقعی و موجود، نه ساخته خیال، زیرا در واقع نقاشان هم، حتی در آن هنگام که بیشترین مهارت خود را به کار می‏برند تا پریان دریایی و نیمه خدایان جنگی را به شکلهای بسیار غریب و نأمأنوس ترسیم کنند، فقظ می‏توانند اعضای جانوران گوناگون را به شکل خاصی به هم بیامیزند و ترکیب کنند، اما هرگز نمی‏توانند اشکال و طبایعی به آنها بدهند که کاملا بدیع و بی‏سابقه باشد.یا اگر تخیل آنها به حدی فوق العاده است که می‏توانند چیزی آن چنان نوظهور بسازند که هرگز مانند آن را ندیده باشیم و به همین جهت کارشان به نظر ما کاملا ساختگی و بکلی بی‏اساس باشد، باز هم دست کم رنگهایی که وسیله ساختن این تصاویر است قطعاً واقعیت دارد. به همین سبب می توان گفت که شاید این اشیاءِ عمومی، یعنی بدن، چشم‌ها، سر، دستها و مانند آنها موهوم باشند، اما با این همه باید اعتراف کرد که دست کم اشیائی باز هم بسیط‌تر و کلی‌تر از اینها هست که واقعی و حقیقی است و همان‌طور که بعضی از رنگ‌های واقعی با هم ممزوج می‌شود، تمام صورتهایی هم که از اشیاء در ذهن ماست -خواه حقیقی و واقعی و خواه موهوم و پنداری- از امتزاج اینها ساخته می‌شود.

بخش دیگری از کتاب:
... مفهومی که از خدائی متعال، سرمد، نامتناهی [تغییرناپذیر]، عالم مطلق، قادر مطلق و خالق کل ماسوی حکایت می‌کند، قطعا مشتمل بر واقعیت ذهنی بیشتری است تا مفاهیمی که از جواهر متناهی حکایت

پاورقی ص ۵۸:
وجود بالفعل یا صوری، وجود خارجی است به همان صورت که بالفعل موجود است، اما وجود والاتر که دکارت از آن به وجود eminent تعبیر می‌کند وجودی است که تمام کمالاتی را که در وجود بالفعل یا صوری موجود است، با چیزی اضافه واجد است، چنان که گفته می‌شود عالم eminently در وجود خداوند موجود است، یعنی نه به همان صورت، بلکه به گونه‌ای والاتر.
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الفلسفة تستخدم العقل، بينما الإيمان يستخدم القلب. وعندي أن يقوم فيلسوف بإثبات وجود الله خير من أن يقوم به رجل دين، فإن للثاني مصلحة في ذلك. وإن كان ديكارت قد أسهب في استخدام المنطق لإثبات ذلك فأعزو هذا بأن الكتاب نشر عام 1641، حيث أن العقل البشري أنذاك أقل معرفةً من عقلنا في الزمن الحالي. ومن المفيد أنه تطرق للنفس البشرية، وللخطأ البشري مما يزيد من قيمة الكتاب.

أنا أشك، إذاً أنا أفكر. أنا أفكر إذاً أنا موجود. أنا موجود إذاً هناك من أوجدني. ولأنني غير كامل فمن المستحيل أنني أوجدت نفسي. فينبغي أن يكون من أوجدني كاملاً. هذا ما كنت أعرفه منذ الصف العاشر عن يكارت قبل قرائتي للكتاب. الآن بت أعرف كيف.
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August 21, 2021
Qué madre le voy a estar poniendo estrellitas a Descartes, no mamen jaja
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459 reviews48 followers
January 6, 2021
Το βιβλίο αυτό γράφτηκε το 1628 στα λατινικά και έπειτα στα γαλλικά. Γενικά, ο Descartes έθεσε προβλήματα της μεταφυσικής, στα οποία δεν ήταν δυνατόν να δοθούν απαντήσεις. Αναμφίβολα, επηρέασε τους μεταγενέστερους φιλοσόφους με το έργο του. Απέκτησε φανατικούς οπαδούς όπως και αντιπάλους.
Ο D. είναι ο εγκαινιαστης της νεώτερης φιλοσοφίας.
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Author 3 books590 followers
November 20, 2012
لا يختلف ديكارت كثيرا عن الغزالي بل ربما يكون قد سلك ديكارت سبيل الغزالي في كتابه هذا غير أن شك الغزالي كان حقيقيا وكان إلحادا كما فعل مثله الدكتور مصطفى محمود بينا شك ديكارت كان شكا أكاديميا تعليميا من باب أن يضع نفسه محل صاحب الفكرة الأخرى وهو الملحد أو الشاك في وجود الله.

وديكارت متدين بطبعه بل ودرس في مدرسة القديسين وهي مدرسة مسيحية بمثابة الأزهر عندنا وعندما ألف كتابه هذا ألفه وأهداه إلى الخاصة من العلماء واختص به علماء المسيحية أكثر من غيرهم وطلب منهم مراجعة الكتاب وإخباره بتعليقاتهم عليه لأن أراد أن يكون معينا لهم وللمسيحية في محاورة الملحدين والشاكين في وجود الله.

غير أن العيب الكبير والذي هبط بعمل كهذا العمل الذي بذل في جهدا كبيرا كهذا في نظري هو نفس ما سقط فيه الغزالي وكل مناقش لمسألة وجود الله وهي أنه بعد محاورات وافتراضات وتحليلات واستنتاجات كثيره يثبت المؤلف وجود الله لكنه لا يستطيع أن يعرف كيف ينبغي أن تكون علاقتنا بهذا الإله، بمعنى آخر هو لا يمكنه إثبات بأي دين يعبد هذا الإله لذا كان اعتماد الغزالي على الوسط الذي يعيش فيه واعتماد ديكارت على الوسط الذي يعيش فيه فبمجرد أن تثبت وجود إله فإنه ينتقل مباشرة إلى الاعتقاد بأن الدين الذي يعتنقه من حوله هو الدين والوسيلة الصحيحة للتواصل بينه بين الله.

ولعل البعض يزعم أن هذا ليس مجاله الفلسفة بل علم مقارنة الأديان.. ولعله يكون صحيحا غير أن عالما دينيا كالغوالي وعالما متدينا كديكارت والذي كتب كتابه وأهداه للقساوسة وعلماء الدين كان حريا به متابعة بحثه حتى يكتمل على الوجه الذي يخرج بالإنسان من كل حيرة لا مجرد حيرة وجود إله من عدمه.

وقد فات ديكارت في كتابه هذا أن يتناول الأوهام والتصورات التي ذكر أنها تحصل في عقله من حيث هي موجودة كمثال أول كما طرحها أفلاطون إذ أنه لو كان الإنسان مفكر متوهم فلابد وأن لتوهمه أو تخيله أصل بني عليه ذلك الخيل فما مصدر هذا التخيل أصلا وكيف ورد المثال إلى ذهنه؟!! هذا دليل على أن ثمة موجودات أخرى مع الإنسان ثابت وجودها بغض النظر عن ماهيتها أو صورتها الحقيقية لكن مجرد ورود المثال لذهن يعني وجود أصل له أو على أقل تقدير أصل لإيجاد المثال في الذهن أي موجد لهذا التوهم الذي ليس له مثال، وهذا يختصر كثيرا من إثباتات ديكارت.

وديكارت من ص152 إلى ص 155 يدور حول كلمتين هما أن وجود إله أزلي خالق لكل شيء هي فكرة عظيمة فلا يمكن أن تكون مجرد فكرة وفقط، لماذا يا ديكارت؟!، لأنها فكرة عظيمة. فلم يوضح ديكارت فعليا لماذا لا تكون تلك الفكرة كبعض الأفكار هي من أوهام النفس أو تخليطها أو مجرد احتمال.

وفي التأمل الرابع يحاول ديكارت تبيين أن خطأ اإنسان في الحكم هو ناتج عن نفسه لا عن الله فيزعم أن ثمة ذهن وإرادة يشتركان معا في إحداث الأفعال وأن الخطأ في الأفعال يكون من جهة الإرادة لا الذهن، وفاته أن الإرادة مبنية على الذهن أو المعرفة فكلاهما مشترك في أحداث الخطأ ولو افترضنا صحة كلامه فإن الإرادة التي هي سبب في الخطأ هي ذاته من خلق الإله وعليه فهو سبب فيها وفيما ينتج عنها.

وفي التأمل الخامس كما قال المترجم في هامش ص216  تعليقا على الدليل التاسع "يمكن تلخيص هذا الدليل على الوجه الآتي: 1- الله بتعريفه هو الكائن الكامل 2- الوجود كامل 3- وإذن فالله موجود" غير أنه لم يطرح علاقة واضحة بين هذه الأشياء خاصة أن الوجود كامل، ويحاول ديكارت اثبات وجود الله اثبات تخوف فهو يتخوف ألا يبقى ثمة شيء يقيني إذا لم يكن هناك إله حيث يزعم أن ما نعرفه عن أشد الأشياء يقينا كالحساب والهندسة يكون حينها مشكوكا فيه لأنه يستطيع أن يقنع نفسه أنه قد صار ديدنا له أن يخطيء ويظن نفسه مصيب، ولم يوضح فعليا أو أنني لم أستوعب العلاقة هنا أيضا.. فإن وجود الله لم يمنعه من اخطأ في أشياء كثيرة فلبرما تصبح اكثر الأشياء يقينا غير يقينية أو خاطئة يوما ما، ثم ان هذا الطرح لن يضر سوى الفلاسفة فعليا لأنهم سيصابون بالجنون لكن عامة البشر سينطلقون فيما هم على يقين منه حتى وإن كان يقينا غير كامل وعلى رأس ذلك علمهم بالحساب والهندسة وسينطلقون في الجانب العملي من حياتهم سواء آمنوا أن هناك إله أو لا ولم يوقفهم ذلك.--- أو يمكن اختصار هذا كله بأن هناك من يثبت وجود إله لمجرد وجود قوانين كونية إذ أن هذه القوانين والدقة لا يمكن أن تكون قد أوجدت نفسها بينما ديكارت يدلل على ثبات القوانين بوجود الله وهذا حمق لأنه يحتاج أولا أن يثبت أن القوانين ثابتة.

وفي التأمل السادس كان أفضل ما قام به ديكارت هو توضيح كيفية التفريق بين الحلم والواقع.. وهو أمر ضروري بلا شك .. غير أنه مهم في حدوده وفقط، أي أنه ربما يكون ما نراه واقع هو بمثابة تخيل أكثر دقة من الحلم وهكذا نعود إلى ذات المشكلة الأولى، ولكنه كان كافيا لمن لا يشغل نفسه بهذا الامتداد الفلسفي، بل كان كلامه مفيدا جدا أيضا فيما يخص الوسوسة والوهم الذي قد يقع فيه البعض من رؤية أشباح وما شابه..


في النهاية التأملات كانت جيدة لكنها لم تكن كما توقعتها .. لعلها أحدثت في وقتها ضجة لكن اضجة التي لازالت تحدثها لا أراها مبررة :).
Profile Image for Ahmed Oraby.
1,014 reviews3,088 followers
July 8, 2016
يتبادر إليّ، إلى ذهني، بعد أن انتهيت - وأخيرًا، حمدًا للرب - من قراءة هذا الكتاب، أن فلسفة ديكارت بأكملها قائمة على مجموعة أفكار، قد تبدو في ظاهرها عميقة نظرًا لصعوبة اللغة والأسلوب والطابع الرياضي لفلسفته، لكنها مع ذلك، تبدو لي - تلك الأفكار - قائمة على عدة مغالطات منطقية، أذكر منها مغالطة " المصادرة على المطلوب" حقًا، كتابه هنا بأكمله كان مبنيًا عليها، تحديدًا في نواحيه المتأخرة، المتعلقة بوجود الله. وبقية الكتاب - ويا للأسف - لم أخرج منه بفائدة واحدة، اللهم إلا محاولته لتعقيد كل ما هو بسيط، وتبسيط - أو بالأحرى تسطيح - كل ما هو عميق وما يستأهل الاسترسال. كتاب بأكمله قائم على فكرة أو إثنين، لكنه يأبى إلا أن يماطل ويلاوع، وأن يكرر ما قاله - ولو نصًا - في أول كتابه، على مدى مئتين صفحة أخرى.
ما أبشع ما قرأت هنا، صدقًا. حتى تعليله لوجود الشر، والخطأ، وكل ما هو ليس بحسن، جاء أسوأ مما قاله كاهن عجوز بمحرابه.
كنت أعتقد أنه محاولة جادة وهكذا، في سبيل إثبات وجود الله أو تقديم أي شيء جديد، لكنه لم يقم بشيء إلا بتكرار كلام فارغ، يحفظه الطفل منذ صغره وينشأ عليه حتى ولو يع منه قيد أنملة.
لي عودة أخرى مع كتبه الأخرى عسى أن أجد شيئًا آخر غير الذي قرأت.
Profile Image for Nahed.E.
619 reviews1,858 followers
May 28, 2015
كيف يمكنك أن تعرف شيئاً عن ديكارت دون أن تقرأ مصدره الأساسي التأملات في الفلسفة الأولي ؟
إنه كتاب أساسي لفهم ديكارت
وخاصة حين يكون المُترجم د عثمان أمين
كثيرون لا يحبون قراءة المصادر - أي الكتب التي كتبها الفيلسوف بنفسه - خوفاً من المصطلحات الصعبة
ولكنك لا تجد مع ديكارت او عثمان أمين أية صعوبة
فالترجمة سهلة ، وتعليق المترجم قبل الفصل وليس خلاله ، حتي لا تش��ر بالضياع بين آراء المؤلف وآراء المترجم
وهنا تكمن الأمانة العلمية ويكمن التميز
Profile Image for محمد شکری.
171 reviews163 followers
June 13, 2015
وقتی کتابی را برای بار سوم میخوانید که تنها برای بار اول جذاب بوده، آنهم به زور امتحانی که در هرمقطع تحصیلی یکبار تکرار میشود، نمیتوانید به آن امتیاز خوبی بدهید
تاملات علاوه بر اهمیت بینظیرش در تاریخ فلسفه، هرچه هم امثال ژیلسون آن را خلاصه ای از فلسفه قرون وسطی بنامند (که تا حدود زیادی حق هم دارند) کتاب خوشخوان و واضحی است... اما من نمیتوانم از آن لذت فلسفی ببرم و نمیتوانم آن را کتابی فلسفی-کلامی ندانم
اما فلاسفه همگی بصیرتهایی در کلام خود دارند که تنها وقتی برای دفعات بعدی آنها را میخوانیم به آن پی میبریم... من هم با اینکه لذت خاصی از خواندن مکرر تاملات نبردم اما نکات جدیدی در آن دیدم

مقدمه دکارت البته از آن نکات جدید نداشت اما برای من جالب بود که دکارت ناخودآگاه به نوعی از در-هم-تنیدگی حقیقت و قدرت اعتراف میکند (هرچند اگر زمان فوکو زنده بود حتما او را به سخره میگرفت)؛ آنجایی که خطاب به اساتید دانشگاه الهیات پاریس می گوید: «دلایل من، هرقدر هم قوی باشد چون مربوط به فلسفه است، اگر شما آنها را در کنف حمایت خود بگیرید... بدون شک، تمام آرای خطا و باطلی که تاکنون درباره این دو مسئله (خدا و نفس) وجود داشته است بزودی از اذهان مردم زدوده خواهد شد» ر
Profile Image for Greg.
1,126 reviews2,052 followers
July 8, 2008
I once wrote a song that had a very witty line in it about Descartes and Robots getting killed by Zombies-- and accused Descartes of being in league with Robots against Humanity. And it's true. Rene Descartes believed in Robots soulless creatures that an evil and malicious god controlled to destroy us all. It's all there in his book, you just have to realize what it is that he is writing about. His whole "I think therefore I am" was a youthful revolutionary vigor, he thought he was some kind of freedom fighter who would liberate the world from all these robots, and for awhile believed himself to be the one true 'thinker' (He even went as far to change his name to Rene De-Cogito), but it never caught on), before he sold-out and realized there was more dough in being in league with the Robots.
And that is how modern dualism was born.

Profile Image for Luthfi Ferizqi.
322 reviews7 followers
July 24, 2024
Well, to be honest, after reading this work by Descartes, I did a lot of research, from browsing the internet to watching a one-hour webinar about Descartes' skeptical philosophy.

This work was written in the 17th century, a time significantly impacted by the effects of the Protestant Reformation. Descartes represents a branch of epistemology and metaphysics with modern skepticism.

Some insights I gained from this work are as follows: 1. We can doubt/skepticize anything that can be doubted. 2. The concept of God’s existence originates from God Himself, not from the limited human mind. 3. Our senses can deceive us, which reminds me of the concept in Christopher Nolan's film *Inception*, where the reality of dreams is also touched upon in this writing.

In conclusion, as someone unfamiliar with philosophy, this writing is quite challenging for me. Nevertheless, it represents the first steps in quenching my endless curiosity.
Profile Image for Xander.
448 reviews174 followers
July 17, 2020
In Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (1641), René Descartes tries to convince his contemporary academics to throw out the Aristotelian-inspired scholastic 'science' and to replace it with his own metaphysical system of knowledge. Some years earlier, in 1637, Descartes published Discours de la Methode, wherein he wanted to find the foundation of certainty for all of our knowledge. This book was written in French, for a general public. Hence, Descartes found himself constrained to be not too skeptical (his method was based on doubting every truth claim), because the general public would not be able to apply this correctly and would probably become atheists accordingly.

In the Medidationes, Descartes tries to offer his more learned readers a process of meditatiion, by which they can clearly and distinctly discover true knowledge. This he does in six meditations and each meditation should be followed scrupulously; readers should give themselves time after reading each meditation to reflect on their thinking, in order to fully understand Descartes' philosophy.

With the clear and distinct (pun intended) danger of misrepresenting Descartes, the follow summary explains his philosophy per meditation.

1. We should find certain knowledge on which to build the system of knowledge. Certain knowledge consists of clear and distinct ideas (two criteria for truth!); to find these, we have to let go of all our earlier gained knowledge and to apply the method of skepticism to every type of idea. Any idea that can be doubted should be viewed as false.

2. The only undoubtable thing is 'cogito ergo sum': I think, therefore I exist. All my perceptions of my body and the world around me could be illusions, but me understanding those things can't be an illusion. So a thinking thing ('res cogitans') exists; a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wishes, imagines and perceives by the senses. This is what I am. This is the foundation of Descartes' philosophy.

3. All the things I perceive about myself as a 'thinking thing', I can perceive in much more perfection - the logical end point of which is ultimate perfection: a thinking thing, or being, that is perfect in all possible senses. This being, otherwise known as God, is clear and distinct, and since this meets Descartes' criteria for discovering truth, it is true. So after discovering the res cogitans as a first truth, Descartes discovers a perfect being, God, as a second truth.

4. Since God is perfect, and therefore good, he would not deceive us. How is it possible that this perfect being created inferior beings (us) that make mistakes? This is because we are created with an ending (i.e. fallible) intellect, but with an endless (i.e. infinite) free will. Mistakes are sins, because of our misuse of our free will. We should use our limited intellect - God's gift - methodically and scrupulously, in order to gain reliable knowledge. Herein lies God's grace.

5. So now we have a thinking thing, a perfect being and our need of a method of scrupulously looking for truth. What's next? Well, we all perceive matter round us: objects, movements, etc. Even though our imperfect senses might deceive us, we can discover truth if we just observe the right method. According to Descartes, the only true knowledge about matter, can come from geometry. This means describing matter in three dimensions. Matter is therefore nothing more, or less, than mathematical extension ('res extensa'). (On a side note: Since matter is extension, it follows logically that a vacuum is impossible. This was to have disastrous effects for Descartes' physical system of the world, when, in 1644 Torricelli would prove the existence of a vacuum as a product of air pressure and thereby destroying an important pillar under Descartes' philosophy.

6. In the last meditation, Descartes tries to convince us of the truth of his three discoveries: res cogitans, God, res extensa. We should drop the scepticism - this was only a method by which to discover clear and distinct ideas (i.e. truth) and should trust in God as a 'garantuor' of the existence of the material world. God's existence is the only thing we can fall back on to believe there's an objective reality.

It is clear that Descartes' system is shaky. In the end, Descartes wants to build an entire system of knowledge on the singular claim that God exists. As a perfect being, He would not deceive us, therefore the objects we perceive are true - albeit sometimes misrepresented, due to the frailty of our intellect. The existence of God is the crucial stone in his whole building: if we can prove this claim to be false, the whole edifice comes crumbling down.

So does his proof for the existence of God stand up to the test? Well, the ontological proof of God turns on the following question: what can it possibly mean to argue that 'existence' is part of perfection? I can think of the most perfect ice cream, but that would not be the perfect ice cream, because it is only an idea in my mind: a really existing ice cream like the one I thought of would be even better! Even though the ontological proof for the existence of God is still an open philosophical question, it is one of those statements that perfectly fit Wittgenstein's dictum: "whereof one cannot speak, thereof one should remain silent." Our language enables us to ask an infinite number of questions - not all questions have a meaning though (what can it mean to ask: Is blue hungry? What time is bird?).

Why did Descartes make his system so vulnerable? In the preface he tells us, that he wanted to offer an alternative to scholasticism, so logically he should reserve a place for God in his system (why would contemporary theologians throw out Christian philosophy in favor for a godless philosophy?). But this cannot be the whole picture. I think Descartes could not avoid putting God as his foundation if he wanted to avoid a system of knowledge that excludes all doubt. Most of our systems of knowledge are built on hypotheses, gained by induction. But induction, David Hume would later on tell us, is nothing more than habit (One cannot proof with certainty the existence of something, one can only disprove with certainty).

And therefore we should say with Karl Popper: no scientific system (or systems of ethics, for that matter) can be build on solid foundations. We build our systems on a swamp; the best we can hope for is to make the foundation as deep and stable as possible. We should give up the hope of proving with certainty the existence of true principles on which to build. More sceptical than this, is not possible - so maybe Descartes' method of doubt is not unnecessary after all...

Anyway, Descartes was the first philosopher who thought deeply about the foundation of our knowledge - and the first to come up with a coherent, consistent and all-encompassing system. In philosophical terms: Descartes was the first person to come up with a hypothetical-deductive system of knowledge - the leading and influential Aristotelian system was axiomatic-deductive. The possibility of such an alternative to scholastic theology would, later on, play a huge role in Newton's grand synthesis (and everything after Newton).

To conclude this review, I'd like to point to an interesting point about Descartes' philosophy. Descartes claims we have an immortal soul, seated in our pineal gland, and that there exists an objective truth we can graps (at least partially). In effect, this means that Descartes thinks we are born with innate ideas about the world - ideas that do not come from our sensual perceptions.

For one thing, this is clearly contra Aristotle, who claimed that we 'download' certain essences into our mind/soul, by observing forms in nature. Seeing 10 cows in a meadow, I perceive the 10 physical objects, but I also perceive (receive?) the general, abstract notion of a cow - this is the cow's essence.

For another thing, the Cartesian idea of innateness is something that later philosophers like Locke and Hume would demolish with their empirical theories of human understanding. According to the tradition of British empiricists, we are born as blank slates and all our knowledge ultimately derives from our sensual perceptions. Our perceptions lead to ideas, and our mind can combine different ideas into second-hand, complex, new ideas, and on and on.

It is ironic that Descartes' is ridiculed by many contemporary neuroscientists, psychologists and philosophers, and this mainly because of his dualism. At the same time, these contemporaries venerate the British empiricists as the founders of psychology. While both statements may be true, the irony lies in the fact that dualism might be an outdated concept, but Descartes' innate ideas are the main springs for evolutionary psychology, while the 'blank slate' doctrine (building on Locke's empiricism), besides being plain wrong, has done more harm than good in the last 100 years (cf. Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate [2003]).

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Second read: I am impressed by Descartes gifted style of writing and his lucid exposition of his radically new philosophy. I feel I understand his humongous break with the past more deeply and I can relate many of his own positions - as opposition to - to Aristotelean notions (this knowledge I lacked on my first reading of the Meditations).

I have to increase my rating for this book - and also my recommendation for readers unfamiliar with one of the most important works in the history of western culture.
This entire review has been hidden because of spoilers.
Profile Image for Jess.
3 reviews
October 11, 2008
Undeniably a monumental work in the field of philosophy. Decartes gives us the bridge from scholastic thinking to modern Piercean methods. Thus opening up a huge and important discussion on the forum of the ethics of belief. A must read for parties interested in the history of modern thought. With that being said Decartes comes off as an arrogant, aristocratic, Johnnie Terry. Defending his flawed, cyclical arguments for the existence of God as if they were absolute, infallible truths.
Profile Image for H.A. Leuschel.
Author 5 books281 followers
May 21, 2019
Ecrit au 17ième siècle, ce récit philosophique reste un texte classique, une base de réflexion sur le doute, les questions sur la connaissance de soi, les limites de la certitude. Non seulement c'est bien écrit mais vaut le détour d'une relecture toutes les quelques années!

Cogito ergo sum - Je pense donc je suis!
Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum - Puisque je doute, je pense; puisque je pense, j'existe
Le doute reste ce qui a comme preuve minimum de notre existence. Nous pouvons douter de tout, meme de notre existence mais pusique nous doutons, cela prouve au moins que nous existons!
Profile Image for Nat.
680 reviews72 followers
February 2, 2010
This is a perfect introduction to philosophy partly because it reveals, in concentrated form, the experience of studying philosophy as a whole: it begins with a very compelling worry about an important issue, pushes that worry to a worrisome extreme, then tries to address the worry in a totally unsatisfying way.
Profile Image for Zoe Artemis Spencer Reid.
574 reviews130 followers
May 26, 2022
When you use God as the reference point to your arguments, as the justification to the trueness of each and every one of your perception, then really, there is no point in asking any question anymore.
Profile Image for B. P. Rinehart.
752 reviews283 followers
July 29, 2013
The crowning achievement of Descartes and the work that would cement his legacy. He had already stunned the world in Discourse on Method with that famous Latin phrase cogito ergo sum; in this work he defends the ideas laid down in "Discourse" and sets about giving his own spin on the ontological argument.

I know that this book gets some criticism now because time has marched on it should not be forgotten that this book changed the course of western philosophy. This work is the reason why the time-line of philosophy has a "pre- and post-Cartesian" era. It changed the way people thought of the mind in relation to the body and it was one of the last significant ontological arguments before Kant's Critique of Pure Reason closed shop on that philosophical exercise.

I knew a lot of the book and its mixed legacy but I view it keeping in mind the world it was released in and the ideas and debates it sparked.

This book is divided into six chapters called..."meditations". In theses meditations Descartes recaps his previous work and lays down his system of mathematics and physics inspired rationalist philosophy.I won't do an intense examination but I will speak to the two things I think it spoke the most on.

Meditations one, two, part of five and six pick-up from his last work and does an intense scrutiny of the body and its senses. Descartes of course denies everything he can exist and comes to the conclusion that he can't deny the fact that he is denying which means his mind is the one thing that confirms his existence, it is his essence. Part of what he was trying to do here is to figure out if our sense perception can be trusted. He does a lot of hard scrutinizing before coming to the conclusion that it can as long as we use our intellect to rationally examine what our senses pick-up. But what, or should I say who do we thank for this intellect and ability to reason? That brings me to the other topic that Descartes tackled...

The ol' ontological argument. I mean it is the subtitle of the work. This takes up meditations three (the infamous Cartesian Circle), four (my favorite), and the other part of five. Part of the reason why I decided to read this book is because I had earlier this year read Saint Anselm of Canterbury's Proslogion which is the book that introduces the ontological argument in Christendom (Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was the first philosopher in the western tradition to use the ontological argument and Descartes borrows from him in his own philosophy). I have not read Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologica but I know this work draws from both but is applied using Descartes trademark mathematical and physics mindset. I don't want to try to summarize it up because I know I will fail (you should read it yourself) but this part of the book contained my favorite meditation (four) and Descartes most infamous piece of philosophy (three).

I like meditation four because of how self-contained it felt compared to the rest of the work. As I explained earlier the book is a continuation of Discourse on Method but expanded and more elaborate. Because of that there is already a complex rationalist system that is interwoven throughout the whole work. That means most of theses meditations would barely make sense unless you read the previous meditation (though the introduction and meditation #1 recap the last book). Meditation four can be stood well on its own and draws on Plato to talk about "the True and the False" concerning God. He does a very good job putting this chapter together and it can be understood with or without the rest of the book.

I knew of some of the negative criticisms of this book before I picked it up but after the first two chapters I didn't think it was bad...then I started the third meditation. Now I don't know what was going on with Descartes when he wrote it but this is where the infamous Cartesian Circle (of logic) occurs and it is bad! He gets caught up in circular reasoning stating that perceptions like cogito ergo sum are clear and distinct because they are true and they are true because they are clear and distinct. He attempts to get out of this by saying we have clear and distinct perceptions because God exist, and we know God exist because we have clear and distinct perceptions of his existence. He then goes on that God is awesome and-HEY LOOK OVER THERE! And we go to meditation four.

I might have given this book five stars but the circular reasoning of meditation 3 brought down the overall quality of the book as I kept thinking about it during his other themes and arguments and I think had he left it out the book would have been relatively better for it.

If you read this book and get deja vu it may be because a little film called The Matrix borrowed a lot from it. Descartes' assertion that we are basically just our minds encased in our brains encased in this weird fleshy thing called a body is classic Rene.

Yeah so, one of the most important works in western thought...not bad.



I read this as a part of Classics of Western Philosophy
Profile Image for Thomas.
1,702 reviews10.7k followers
October 10, 2013
Reading Descartes's Meditations was like examining a speech by Hitler - while I disagreed with almost everything on the content level, I admired his rhetoric and how it made me think. Of course this also changed the entire canon of philosophy which proves its prevalence. Some of my favorite parts include the Cartesian Circle, the mind-body substance dualism, and the power of reason. My rating, while low, does not really reflect the quality of the work so much as my personal opinion/enjoyment of it; I still had the time of my life discussing it in my philosophy course.
Profile Image for Emily Laurent-Monaghan.
55 reviews76 followers
January 4, 2020
I will continue to return to this text--probably for the rest of my life--in order to undo the mis-education as regards Cartesian dualism. There is a systemic intellectual simplification of Descartes' thought within philosophy; the way that his thought has been historicized and ontologized tends toward perfidy, and I would also argue, ideology. The aporia of the Sixth Meditation is most fascinating to me. I highly recommend anyone who is interested in "new" readings of Descartes to read Jean-Luc Marion's philosophical engagement with Cartesian philosophy. It is superb.
Profile Image for Hamza Senhaji.
11 reviews
February 1, 2015
استعرت هذا الكتاب من المكتبة الوسائطية المتواجدة بمدينتي، و كان ذلك منذ أشهر قليلة، فما إن شددت العزم على قراءته حتى تهاوت على رأسي -و رؤوس التلاميذ مثلي- سلسلة من الامتحانات كوابل من الحجر، لا تأخذها بأحد منا رأفة و لا تنتابها بنا شفقة، فما إن نفرغ من امتحان الرياضيات، حتى نتهيأ لامتحان الفيزياء، و منه لامتحان الطبيعيات، و هكذا دواليك، ندور في تلكم الحلقة التي لا نني نعتق منها بشق الأنفس حتى نقع في شباكها من جديد، فكان لكتابنا هذا ذلكم المصير المحتوم، أن تركته منزويا في ركن بين الأوراق و الكتب البالية لا تبرحه يد و لا تحمله أكفف، و تفرغت لما أصابني و ابتليت به من سوء حظ و قبح طالع. و كانت عيناي في أيامي المضنية تلك نادرا ما تقع عليه، فإن حصل و لمحت غلافه المنتشي بالأسود و عليه اسم "ديكارت" المهيب، تنتابني حالة من الهيجان أرغي فيها و أزبد و ألعن النظام الدراسي و من أقره و أتى به. و ما أهولها من لحظة تلك التي تبتغي فيها قراءة كتاب فيعوزك عن مرادك عائق، خاصة و إن كان عائقا من أتفه ما يكون لا يريد بك إلا استذكار الكتب المدرسية و حفظها، و يكرهك على كرع المواد و المعلومات -التي أعدها لك مسبقا- حتى تتخم لا لشيء إلا لتستظهرها بعد ذلك كالببغاء أو تتقيأها على ورقة الامتحان في بلادة، ثم تترك قاعة الامتحان و على وجهك ابتسامة حزينة و قد ألقيت وراءك الأوزار الثقيلة كلها و أعددت بطنك -عقلك- لعملية تعبئة جديدة. فهكذا أريد بنا، أصفارا تمشي على أرجل، أو قطيعا يدب في الأرض يأكل ثم يتقيأ و لا يفقه إلا ما علمه سيده الذي يقوم له صباح مساء يوفيه التبجيل

و ما زاد من حنقي أكثر أن كنت كلما اعتزمت انتحاء ركن للقراءة يطرأ لي طارئ ما كان في تقديري ليكون، فأترك كل ما في يدي و أأجل القراءة لغد أو بعد غد أو أأجلها لأجل غير مسمى. حتى جاء هذا "الأجل" و لم يتأخر إلا قليلا. أي نعم، جاء ذاك اليوم المنشود و فتحت الكتاب على مصراعيه فلم أغلقه حتى انقضاء نيف و أربعة أيام قضيتها كلها برفقة ديكارت .. و ما أعسرها من رفقة.

انطلق ديكارت في مستهل كتابه هذا من رؤية بسيطة، أن وجود الإنسان متعلق تعلقا وثيقا بتفكيره، و انقطاعه عن ذاك هو انقطاع عن الوجود و استحالة إلى العدم، فالوجود -عند ديكارت- يستلزم تفعيل الفكر و تقليبه، و خوض أشواط من الريب و الشك و التساؤل حتى تفقد المسلمات بداهتها، و ينهار الواهن منها، فبناء معبد لا يكون إلا بهدم اخر، و الهدم ينطلق من المبادئ، من الأسس التي تجر معها بالضرورة بقية البناء، و كذلك هو التفكير عند ديكارت، شك ينتهي إلى يقين .. إلى كنف الحقيقة، فالإنسان في نظره كائن واع، يعي ما حوله و يميز بين الأشياء بملكة التفكير و ليس الحواس فهي مضللة لا تني تكون أوهاما، سحابة تغشي عن عقولنا الحقيقة.

إذن فديكارت لا يرى في غير شكه، أي تفكيره، سببا أو مدعاة لوجوده، لكن، أليس وراء كل صنيعة صانعا و وراء كل موجود موجِداّ ؟ فمن أوجدني إذن ؟ هكذا يتساءل ديكارت فلا يجد لتساؤله جوابا غير أن يضع افتراضين لا ثالث لهما، أنه هو من أوجد نفسه، أو ربما هي ذات أخرى، لم يحتويها بعد علمه، قد أوجدته.

و تمضي الصفحات، و يسترسل ديكارت شطحاته الفكرية و مراوغاته الأيديولوجية المعهودة على الفلاسفة، حتى يصل إلى نتيجة أساسية مفادها أن لما كان ذاتا غير كاملة فمن المستحيل أنه أوجد نفسه، و أنه لمن سديد الرجحان أن تكون هنالك ذات كاملة قد أوجدته. و هنا يمر إلى مرحلة متقدمة من تأملاته، فيتساءل كما المعهود : أحقا هذه الذات موجودة ؟ أم هذا من سبيل الهذيان ؟ و لا يطيل علينا حتى يأتينا بالإجابة، فمنذ نعومة أظافرنا و نحن نجد في وجداننا فكرة و تصورا عن ذات كاملة الصفات لا نهائية منزهة عن النقص و الخبائث، فما دمنا نتصورها تصورا واضحا متنيزا فهذه الذات موجودة، و موجودة حقا. إنها الجبلة يا سادة، التصورات الثابة في صميم الفطرة المنزهة عن الخطأ و الزلل. و هنا جاءت الصاعقة، و أتت بما كان لاسم ديكارت في ذهني من هالة تعظيم و تبجيل، و أصبحت أرى فيه ذلك الفيلسوف الغر الذي جرما اكتسب صفة "الفذ" و جرما كذلك تناقلت اسمه الأجيال. و قد يظن البعض أنني أهذي، و قد يهاجمني البعض الآخر، لكن قبل أي ظن أو هجوم علينا التساءل : أليس هذا عينه ما أتت به الأديان السماوية ؟ أليس هذا عينه ما خط في الإنجيل و القرآن ؟ ألم يعط الكتاب قدرا ما كان يستحقه و هو الذي لم يأتنا بجديد يذكر ؟ لست بحاجة لكثير من الاطناب و سجع الكلام حتى أبين أن ديكارت قد أوهمنا، بل و خدعنا لما أضفى على كتابه هذا عظمة ما كانت لتكون دون حذلقة و تلاعب بالكلمات، و ليته أرشدنا ساعتها لقراءة إنجيل أو قرآن لكان ذلك أسهل عملا و أيسر فهما.

على العموم كتاب جيد إلى حد ما، فإن كنت ممن ملوا خطب رجال الدين المستهلكة الرتيبة، و إن كنت تريد من يخاطب عقلك لا مشاعرك و من يحرك فكرك لا من يستثير عواطفك، فلك هذا الكتاب.
Author 2 books450 followers
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January 19, 2022
"Peki, hakiki olan ne? Belki de sadece şu: Hiçbir şeyin kesin olmaması." (s.33)

İnsançocuğunun birikim yönünden, kültür yönünden, bilim yönünden henüz emekleme aşamasından yürüme aşamasına geçtiği bir çağın; kilise sansürüne, baskılara, maddi imkansızlıklara rağmen yetiştirdiği Descartes gibi büyük isimler mutlaka okunmalı

Çizgisel, ilerlemeci tarih anlayışına karşı olsam da; bu insanlar büyük birikimin en büyük katkılarını sağlayan insanlardı.

"Bir ulu ırmak akıyor, insan eli ilk mağaraya ilk bizonu çizdiğinden beri / sonra bütün çaylar, yeni balıklar, yeni su otları, yeni tatlarıyla dökülüyor onun içine / Ve kurumayan, uçsuz bucaksız akan bir O'dur." (Nazım Hikmet)

Yazarın bir meditasyon ve dinlenme sürecinde olgunlaştırdığı kitabın; bütünüyle soyut kavramlarla şekillenen bulanık bir dünyada el yordamıyla yön bulma çabası olduğunu söyleyebilirim. Bilimin, daha doğrusu müspet bilimin henüz yeterince hakkının verilmediği bir dönemde; asla sorgulanmadan kabul edilen soyut varlıkların ve bu varlıklara dair görüşlerin ispatını, çürütülmesini veya araştırılmasını salt düşünce yoluyla bulmaya çalışan yazar kitap boyunca bu yöntemi terk etmiyor. Kitabın temel yöntemi bu: salt düşünce ile nerelere ulaşabiliriz?

Çiğdem Dürüşken'in başarılı çevirisi olan; Platon'un ve Aristo'nun görüşlerinin izleri hissediliyor. Yazarın beynine bir seyahat olan kitabı giriş bölümünün ilk paragrafı aslında özetliyor:

"Bundan birkaç yıl önce, gençliğimden bu yana ne çok yanlışı doğru kabul ettiğimi, dolayısıyla bu yanlışların üzerine temellendirdiğim şeylerin ne kadar kuşku götürdüğünü fark ettim ve o günden itibaren bilimlerde sağlam ve kalıcı bir şey inşa etmek istiyorsam, hayatımdaki her şeyi bir kerede kökünden söküp atmam ve meseleye tekrar en başından başlamam gerektiğini anladım." (s.23)

M.B.
Profile Image for Rosanna Threakall.
Author 0 books93 followers
October 13, 2015
Conquered this beast! The first piece of philosophical writing I have ever read and I actually really enjoy it. I like writing poems about the same kind of thing he discusses, existence, God, conscience etc so this was a really helpful and inspiring read.

If you're daunted by philosophy I would definitely just pick it up because it's not too heavy, we can all empathise with questioning "why we exist" or "what the meaning of life is."

I have a feeling that this will really inspire my final performance piece so I'm glad I read the whole thing (an not just meditation 2 which was required - I'm a nerd what can I say.
Profile Image for Münibe Bilgiç.
47 reviews
August 24, 2017
TOK (teory of knowledge) dersi için bu kitabı okumamız gerekiyordu ve pdf olarak elimde vardı ama pdften okumak dünyanın en zor şeyi falan olduğu için satın aldım. Kabalcı yayınlarının baskılarını Latince Türkçe karşılıklı yapması gerçekten çok yerinde, çok güzel olmuş. Bu sayede yer yer yan tarafa bakıp kelime çıkarmaca oyunu oynadım kendi kendime, zaten Ingilizce ve Latince arasında hatırı sayılır bir benzerlik olduğu için çok da zor bir oyun olmadı bu, aksine gerçekten eğlenceliydi. Zaten kitabın da yaklaşık yüzde yetmişlik bir bölümünü elime aldığım gibi okudum, geri kalanını da akşam yatmadan önce. Böyle bir kitabın akıcı olması gerçekten hayret verici ama şikayet etmiyorum elbette, iyi ki böyle. Altını çize çize, düşüne düşüne okumak bir kitabı ve bunu usanmadan yapmak çok güzel. Ayrıca TOK hocasının anlattığına göre ülkemizde genel olarak ana metin yani Descartes'ın kitapları okunmuyor yerine onun üzerine yazılmış kitaplar, tezler vesaire daha fazla okunuyormuş. Bu tıpkı metni okumayıp sadece dipnotlarını ya da sadece önsözlerini ya da sadece sonsözlerini okumak gibi bir şey, ana metni okuduğum için mutluyum. Descartes'ın meşhur "cotigo sum ego sum" (tam olarak böyle miydi dndn) felsefesini Descartes'ın kendisinden okuduğum için daha çok mutluyum tabi ki. En kısa zamanda Descartes'ın Metod Üzerine Konuşma (zagon üzerine öttürme😂) kitabını da okumak istiyorum, hayırlısıyla şu yaz okulu bi bitse de:).
Profile Image for Hirdesh.
399 reviews96 followers
July 19, 2020
Amazing book !
It's one of oldest philosophical notation and Author had comprehensively acknowledged the notation in simplest though broad way.
It comprises noteworthy 6 principles merely called Meditation by Author are :-
MEDITATION I: Of the Things on Which We May Doubt
MEDITATION II: Of the Nature of the Human Mind; and that It is More Easily Known than the Body.
MEDITATION III: Of God: That He Exists
MEDITATION IV: Of Truth and Error
MEDITATION V: Of the Essence of Material Things; and, Again, of God; That He Exists.
MEDITATION VI: Of the Existence of Material Things, and of the Real Distinction Between the Mind and Body of Man.

This treatise contains metaphysical meditations on the existence of god, the nature of the human mind and the essence and existence of material things. It was written in 1639-40 in Latin and was published in 1641 in Paris, followed by second Latin edition in 1642 in Amsterdam and a French translation in 1647, edited and approved by Descartes himself.

A collection of Objections and Replies accompanied the main text , where various philosophers and theologians (among them Thomas Hobbes) expressed their objections, while Descartes's sought to provide the necessary clarifications and explanations.
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