View source for Dwight D. Eisenhower

{{Short description|World War II general, U.S. president (1953 to 1961)}}
{{Redirect2|Dwight David Eisenhower|Eisenhower|his grandson|David Eisenhower||Eisenhower (disambiguation)}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image               = Dwight D. Eisenhower, official photo portrait, May 29, 1959 (cropped)(3).jpg
| alt                 = Official portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower as president of the United States
| caption             = Official portrait, 1959
| order               = 34th
| office              = President of the United States
| vicepresident       = [[Richard Nixon]]
| term_start          = January 20, 1953
| term_end            = January 20, 1961
| predecessor         = [[Harry S. Truman]]
| successor           = [[John F. Kennedy]]
| order2              = 1st
| office2             = Supreme Allied Commander Europe
| president2          = Harry S. Truman
| deputy2             = [[Bernard Montgomery]]
| term_start2         = April 2, 1951
| term_end2           = May 30, 1952
| predecessor2        = Position established
| successor2          = [[Matthew Ridgway]]
| order3              = 13th
| office3             = President of Columbia University
| term_start3         = June 7, 1948
| term_end3           = January 19, 1953
| predecessor3        = [[Nicholas Murray Butler]]
| successor3          = [[Grayson L. Kirk]]
| office4             = 16th [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff of the Army]]
| president4          = Harry S. Truman
| deputy4             = [[J. Lawton Collins]]
| term_start4         = November 19, 1945
| term_end4           = February 6, 1948
| predecessor4        = [[George C. Marshall]]
| successor4          = [[Omar Bradley]]
| office5             = 1st [[Military Governor]] of the [[American-occupied zone of Germany]]
| president5          = Harry S. Truman
| term_start5         = May 8, 1945
| term_end5           = November 10, 1945
| predecessor5        = Position established
| successor5          = [[George S. Patton]] (acting)
| office6             = [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]]
| appointer6          = [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| deputy6             = [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Arthur Tedder]]
| term_start6         = December 24, 1943
| term_end6           = July 14, 1945
| predecessor6        = Position established
| successor6          = Position abolished
| birth_name          = David Dwight Eisenhower
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1890|10|14}}
| birth_place         = [[Denison, Texas]], U.S.
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1969|3|28|1890|10|14}}
| death_place         = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| resting_place       = [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home]]
| party               = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (from 1952)
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Doud]]|July 1, 1916}}
| children            = {{hlist|[[Doud Eisenhower|Doud]]|[[John Eisenhower|John]]}}
| relatives           = [[Eisenhower family]]
| occupation          = {{hlist|[[Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Military officer]]|politician}}
| education           = [[United States Military Academy]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]])
| signature           = Dwight Eisenhower Signature.svg
| signature_alt       = Cursive signature in ink
<!--Military service-->| nickname            = "Ike"<ref>{{cite web |title=The Eisenhowers |url=https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/eisenhowers  |publisher=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home]] |access-date=October 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818155630/https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/eisenhowers |archive-date=August 18, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| allegiance          = United States
| branch              = [[United States Army]]
| serviceyears        = {{plainlist|
* 1915–1953
* 1961–1969<ref name=post>{{cite web |url=http://www.eisenhower.utexas.edu/all_about_ike/post_presidential.html |publisher=The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum  |title=Post-presidential years |access-date=September 5, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023053144/http://www.eisenhower.utexas.edu/all_about_ike/post_presidential.html |archive-date=October 23, 2013}}</ref>
}}
| rank                = [[General of the Army (United States)#World War II and Korean War era|General of the Army]]
| battles             = {{hidden
|''See battles''
|{{tree list}}
*[[Border War (1910–1919)|Border War]]
**[[Pancho Villa Expedition]]
*[[United States in World War I|World War I]]
*[[World War II]]
**[[North African campaign]]
***[[Operation Torch]]
****[[Battle of Port Lyautey]]
***[[Tunisian campaign]]
****[[Battle of Kasserine Pass]]
**[[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]]
***[[Operation Husky]]
***[[Allied invasion of Italy]]
****[[Operation Avalanche]]
**[[Operation Overlord]]
***[[Normandy landings]]
****[[Falaise Pocket|Battle of the Falaise Pocket]]
*** [[Liberation of Paris]]
**[[Operation Dragoon]]
**[[Siegfried Line campaign]]
***[[Operation Market Garden]]
***[[Operation Queen]]
**[[Battle of the Bulge]]
**[[Western Allied invasion of Germany]]
***[[Battle of Remagen]]
**[[Occupation of Germany]]
*[[Korean War]]
{{tree list/end}}
|-
|headerstyle=background:#dbdbdb
|style=text-align:center;
}}
| mawards             = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[Army Distinguished Service Medal]] (5)
* [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]]
* {{see below|{{slink||Awards and decorations}}}}
}}
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Dwight D. Eisenhower on Military enforcement of school integration in Little Rock.ogg|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower's voice|type=speech|description=Eisenhower on military enforcement of [[School integration in the United States|school integration]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]<br />Recorded September 24, 1957}}
| otherparty          = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (1909)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |title=Eisenhower Was a Democrat |journal=Kansas History |date=1990 |volume=13 |page=134 |url=http://npshistory.com/publications/eise/kh-v13n3-1990-1.pdf |access-date=2 June 2024}}</ref>
}}
'''Dwight David Eisenhower'''{{efn|Pronounced ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|z|ən|h|aʊ|.|ər|audio=Dwight D. Eisenhower Pronunciation.ogg}} {{respell|EYE|zən|how|ər}}}} (born '''David Dwight Eisenhower''';<!-- Do not remove. His birth name is different from his legal name. It must be in the lead and bolded.--> October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th [[president of the United States]], serving from 1953 to 1961. During [[World War II]], he was [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] in Europe and achieved the [[five-star rank]] as [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]]. Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of [[Military history of the United States during World War II|World War II]]: [[Operation Torch]] in the [[North Africa campaign]] in 1942–1943 and the [[invasion of Normandy]] in 1944.

Eisenhower was born in [[Denison, Texas]], and raised in [[Abilene, Kansas]]. His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a [[Jehovah's Witness]]. Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from [[West Point]] in 1915 and later married [[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Doud]], with whom he had two sons. During [[World War I]], he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained [[tank]] crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and [[Allied invasion of Sicily|Sicily]] before supervising the invasions of [[Operation Overlord|France]] and [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|Germany]]. After the war ended in Europe, he served as [[military governor]] of the [[American-occupied zone of Germany]] (1945), [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Army Chief of Staff]] (1945–1948), [[president of Columbia University]] (1948–1953), and as the first [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe|supreme commander of NATO]] (1951–1952).

In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator [[Robert A. Taft]], who opposed [[NATO]]. Eisenhower won [[1952 United States presidential election|that year's election]] and the [[1956 United States presidential election|1956 election]] in [[Landslide victory|landslides]], both times defeating [[Adlai Stevenson II]]. Eisenhower's main goals in office were to [[Containment|contain the spread of communism]] and reduce [[federal deficit]]s. In 1953, he considered using [[nuclear weapon]]s to end the [[Korean War]] and may have threatened China with [[nuclear attack]] if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and [[Korean Armistice Agreement|an armistice]] resulted, which remains in effect. His [[New Look policy]] of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued [[Harry S. Truman]]'s policy of recognizing [[Taiwan]] as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the [[Formosa Resolution]]. His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the [[First Indochina War]]. After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of [[South Vietnam]]. He supported [[United States involvement in regime change|regime-changing military coups]] in [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|Iran]] and [[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état|Guatemala]] orchestrated by his own administration. During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the [[1958 Lebanon crisis]]. Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] was cancelled when [[1960 U-2 incident|a US spy plane was shot down]] over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out.

On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a [[moderate conservative]] who continued [[New Deal]] agencies and expanded [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. He covertly opposed [[Joseph McCarthy]] and contributed to the end of [[McCarthyism]] by openly invoking [[executive privilege]]. He signed the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which [[Little Rock Nine|integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas]]. His administration undertook the development and construction of the [[Interstate Highway System]], which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of [[Sputnik]], Eisenhower led the American response which included the [[creation of NASA]] and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the [[National Defense Education Act]]. The Soviet Union began to reinforce [[Soviet space program|their own space program]], escalating the [[Space Race]]. His two terms saw [[Post–World War II economic expansion|unprecedented economic prosperity]] except for a [[Recession of 1958|minor recession in 1958]]. In [[Eisenhower's farewell address|his farewell address]], he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive [[Military budget of the United States|military spending]], particularly [[deficit spending]] and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the [[military–industrial complex]]". Historical evaluations of [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|his presidency]] place him among the [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States#Scholar survey summary|upper tier of American presidents]].

== Family background ==
{{Further|Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of [[Karlsbrunn]] to the [[Province of Pennsylvania]] in 1741.<ref name="barnett19421109">{{cite news | url={{GBurl|id=JUAEAAAAMBAJ|p=112}}| title=General "Ike" Eisenhower | magazine=Life | date=November 9, 1942 | access-date=May 31, 2011 | author=Barnett, Lincoln | page=112}}</ref> Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was [[Anglicisation (linguistics)|anglicized]].<ref>{{cite news | url={{GBurl|id=YVD0jK03EPEC}} | title=Ike: An American Hero | author=Korda, Michael | year=2007 | access-date=July 22, 2012 | page=63| publisher=Harper Collins | isbn=9780061744969 }}</ref>

David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on the family farm. Eisenhower's mother, [[Ida Stover Eisenhower|Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower]], of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in [[Lecompton, Kansas]], on the campus of their alma mater, [[Lane University]].<ref name="Ambrose 1983, pp. 16–8">{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=16–18}}</ref> 
David owned a general store in [[Hope, Kansas]], but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 ({{Inflation|US|24|1892|fmt=eq}}) to their name. David worked as a railroad mechanic and then at a creamery.<ref name="Ambrose 1983, pp. 16–8" /> By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=19}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
[[File:Eisenhower House 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Eisenhower family home in Abilene, Kansas]]
Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David.<ref>{{cite book|last=D'Este|first=Carlo|title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life|year=2003|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0805056874|pages=21–22|url={{GBurl|id=RCeteK7LEiYC|p=21}}|access-date=September 13, 2016}}</ref> His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family.<ref name="A18">{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=18}}</ref> He was named Dwight after the evangelist [[Dwight L. Moody]].<ref>[https://ww2gravestone.com/people/eisenhower-dwight-david-ike/ Eisenhower, Dwight David "Ike".], biography on World War II graves website</ref> All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" ([[Edgar N. Eisenhower|Edgar]]) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=22}}</ref> By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike".{{r|barnett19421109}}

In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown.{{r|barnett19421109}} As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother [[Earl D. Eisenhower|Earl]] an eye, for which he was remorseful for the remainder of his life.<ref>{{cite book|last=D'Este|first=Carlo|title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life|year=2003|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0805056874|page=31|url={{GBurl|id=RCeteK7LEiYC|p=21}}|access-date=June 12, 2020}}</ref> Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the [[Smoky Hill River]].<ref name=ease /><ref>D'Este, Carlo (2002). ''Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life'', p. 25.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.nps.gov/eise/forteachers/classrooms/upload/webed-Molding-of-a-Leader-Lesson-3-Materials.pdf |title=Getting on the Right TRRACC |work=Lesson Plans: The Molding of a Leader |publisher=Eisenhower National Historic Site |access-date=April 27, 2013 |quote=...&nbsp;Ike spent his weekends at Davis's camp on the Smoky Hill River. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326175456/http://home.nps.gov/eise/forteachers/classrooms/upload/webed-Molding-of-a-Leader-Lesson-3-Materials.pdf |archive-date=March 26, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became a voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=32}}</ref>

Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=25}}</ref> His mother, previously a member (with David) of the [[River Brethren]] ([[Brethren in Christ Church]]) sect of the [[Mennonite]]s,<ref name="Time"/> joined the [[International Bible Students|International Bible Students Association]], later known as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined.<ref>Bergman, Jerry. "Steeped in Religion: President Eisenhower and the Influence of the Jehovah's Witnesses", ''Kansas History'' (Autumn 1998).</ref> His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision.<ref>D'Este, Carlo (2002). ''Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life'', p. 58.</ref> Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)|Presbyterian Church]] in 1953.<ref name="Time">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889614,00.html "Faith Staked Down"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820072103/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889614,00.html |date=August 20, 2010 }}, ''Time'', February 9, 1953.</ref>

Eisenhower attended [[Abilene High School (Abilene, Kansas)|Abilene High School]] and graduated in 1909.<ref name="gradyear">{{Cite news |title=Public School Products |date=September 14, 1959 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=36}}</ref> He and brother [[Edgar N. Eisenhower|Edgar]] both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=37}}</ref>

Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery.<ref>{{Cite news|access-date=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,839998-3,00.html|title=Eisenhower: Soldier of Peace|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=April 4, 1969|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524105356/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,839998-3,00.html|archive-date=May 24, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend [[Edward Hazlett|Edward "Swede" Hazlett]] was applying to the [[United States Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, [[Joseph L. Bristow]]. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy.<ref name="Education">{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/biodde.html |title=Biography: Dwight David Eisenhower |publisher=[[Eisenhower Foundation]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523224747/http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/biodde.html |archive-date=May 23, 2008 }}</ref> He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911.<ref name="Education" />

At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about the hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe. He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English. Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=44–48}}</ref>

In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest".<ref name="rayaip">{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.baseball-almanac.com/prz_qde.shtml|title=President Dwight D. Eisenhower Baseball Related Quotations|publisher=Baseball Almanac|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521164214/http://www.baseball-almanac.com/prz_qde.shtml|archive-date=May 21, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> He made the [[Army Black Knights football|varsity football team]]<ref name="ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil">{{cite web|title=Eisenhower BOQ 1915 |url=http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/tour8.htm |access-date=August 23, 2012 |publisher=[[Fort Sam Houston]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717161130/http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/tour8.htm |archive-date= July 17, 2007}}</ref><ref name="ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil 2">{{cite web|url=http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/eisen_football.htm |title=Lt Eisenhower and Football Team |access-date=August 23, 2012 |publisher=[[Fort Sam Houston]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717161130/http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/eisen_football.htm |archive-date= July 17, 2007}}</ref> and was a starter at [[Halfback (American football)|halfback]] in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary [[Jim Thorpe]] of the [[Carlisle Indians football|Carlisle Indians]].<ref>{{Cite news |access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/09/jim.thorpe/ |title=Roller-coaster life of Indian icon, sports' first star |publisher=CNN |date=July 15, 1912 |author=Botelho, Greg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114200705/http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/09/jim.thorpe/ |archive-date=November 14, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring,{{r|barnett19421109}}<ref name=ease>Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1967). ''At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends'', Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company, Inc.</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/stories/Ike-and-team.htm |title=Ike and the Team |publisher=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725054759/http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/stories/Ike-and-team.htm |archive-date=July 25, 2008 }}</ref> so he turned to fencing and gymnastics.{{r|barnett19421109}}

[[File:Yearbook portrait of Dwight David Eisenhower (1890–1969) at West Point in 1915.png|thumb|right|upright|West Point yearbook photo, 1915]]

Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General [[Frederick Funston]].<ref name="Team America">{{Cite book |last=O'Connell |first=Robert L. |title=Team America |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2022 |isbn=9780062883322 |edition=1st |pages=117–119}}</ref> He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915,<ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/ddeisenhower.html|title=Dwight David Eisenhower|publisher=[[Internet Public Library]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511153206/http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/ddeisenhower.html|archive-date=May 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> which became known as "[[the class the stars fell on]]", because 59 members eventually became [[general officer]]s. After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in the Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing [[Mexican Revolution]], he was posted to [[Fort Sam Houston]] in [[San Antonio]], Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for [[Peacock Military Academy]];<ref name="Team America"/> he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now [[St. Mary's University, Texas|St. Mary's University]],<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=56}}</ref> and was an honorary member of the Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sigmabetachi.celect.org/we-remember |title=We Remember |website=Sigma Beta Chi |access-date=March 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320110037/http://sigmabetachi.celect.org/we-remember |archive-date=March 20, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
{{main|Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of [[Boone, Iowa]].{{r|barnett19421109}} They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on [[Valentine's Day]] in 1916.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/marchapril-2003/man-who-changed-america-part-i | title =The Man Who Changed America, Part I | first =Richard F. | last =Weingroff | publisher =[[Federal Highway Administration|Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)]] | date =March–April 2003 | access-date =April 17, 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130509120831/http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/03mar/05.cfm | archive-date =May 9, 2013 | url-status =live }}</ref> A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending [[American entry into World War I]]; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Connell |first=Robert L. |title=Team America |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2022 |isbn=9780062883322 |edition=1st |page=122}}</ref> The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=59–60}}</ref>

The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he was in charge of training at [[Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia|Fort Oglethorpe]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], his wife Mamie had their first son, [[Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower#Doud Eisenhower|Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower]], who died of [[scarlet fever]] at the age of three.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Berger-Knorr, Lawrence|title=The Pennsylvania Relations of Dwight D. Eisenhower|page=8}}</ref> Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death.{{r|beckett}} Their second son, [[John Eisenhower]], was born in [[Denver]], Colorado.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/john-sd-eisenhower-historian-and-presidents-son-dies-at-91/2013/12/21/2f344aae-6a9a-11e3-ae56-22de072140a2_story.html |title=John S.D. Eisenhower dies; historian and president's son was 91 |date=December 21, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=August 16, 2017 |first1=Martin |last1=Weil |first2=Emily |last2=Langer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817082546/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/john-sd-eisenhower-historian-and-presidents-son-dies-at-91/2013/12/21/2f344aae-6a9a-11e3-ae56-22de072140a2_story.html |archive-date=August 17, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> John served in the [[United States Army]], retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as [[Diplomatic missions of Belgium|Ambassador to Belgium]] from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: [[David Eisenhower|David]], Barbara Ann, [[Susan Eisenhower|Susan Elaine]] and [[Mary Jean Eisenhower|Mary Jean]]. David, after whom [[Camp David]] is named,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/camp_david.html |title=Camp David |publisher=Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home |quote=Ike re-named it 'Camp David' in honor of his grandson David Eisenhower |access-date=August 16, 2017  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706063352/https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/camp_david.html |archive-date=July 6, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> married [[Richard Nixon]]'s daughter [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]] in 1968.

[[File:Mamie eisenhower.gif|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Mamie Eisenhower, painted in 1953 by Thomas E. Stephens]]

Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the [[Augusta National Golf Club]] in 1948.<ref>{{harvnb|Owen|1999|pp=165–167}}</ref> He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had a basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman [[Clifford Roberts]], inviting Roberts to stay at the [[White House]] on numerous occasions.<ref>{{harvnb|Owen|1999|p=169}}</ref> Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments.<ref name="owen-172-173">{{harvnb|Owen|1999|pp=172–173}}</ref>

He began [[oil painting]] while at Columbia University, after watching [[Thomas E. Stephens (artist)|Thomas E. Stephens]] paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, [[George Washington]], and [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="dodson19901117">{{cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-17-me-4317-story.html | title=New Exhibit Offers a Look at Eisenhower the Artist | work=Los Angeles Times | date=November 17, 1990 | access-date=January 13, 2012 | author=Dodson, Marcida | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309135112/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-11-17/local/me-4317_1_nixon-library | archive-date=March 9, 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Wendy Beckett]] stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down [[Tin Lizzie]], loaded with paint, has been driven over it".<ref name="beckett">{{cite journal | url=http://www.whha.org/whha_publications/publications_documents/whitehousehistory_21.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605042420/http://www.whha.org/whha_publications/publications_documents/whitehousehistory_21.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 5, 2012 | title=President Eisenhower: Painter | author=Beckett, Wendy | journal=White House History | issue=21 | pages=30–40 }}</ref>

''[[Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)|Angels in the Outfield]]'' was Eisenhower's favorite movie.<ref>{{cite web|last=Erickson|first=Hal|title=Angels in the Outfield (1951): Review Summary|url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/83734/Angels-in-the-Outfield/overview|access-date=September 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928092648/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/83734/Angels-in-the-Outfield/overview|archive-date=September 28, 2013|department=Movies & TV Dept.|work=[[The New York Times]]|author-link=Hal Erickson (author)|date=2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of [[Zane Grey]].<ref name="Rhodes Scholars">{{cite book|last=Schaeper|first=Thomas J.|title=Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the Creation of an American Elite|year=2010|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1845457211|page=210}}</ref> With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play [[contract bridge]] at West Point, Eisenhower played the game six nights a week for five months.<ref name="smith20123132">{{cite book | title=Eisenhower in War and Peace | publisher=Random House | author=Smith, Jean Edward | year=2012 | pages=31–32, 38 | isbn=978-0679644293}}</ref> Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President [[Manuel Quezon]], earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila".<ref name="Manuel L. Quezon: 15 Mesmerizing Facts About Philippines' 2nd President">{{cite web |title=Manuel L. Quezon: 15 Mesmerizing Facts About Philippines' 2nd President |url=https://filipiknow.net/facts-about-president-manuel-quezon/ |website=FilipiKnow |access-date=October 27, 2020 |date=June 3, 2019}}</ref> An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during the stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General [[Alfred Gruenther]], considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer [[Ely Culbertson]] described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge a man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert [[Oswald Jacoby]] frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in the 70s."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://advocate.district8acbl.com/jun09/ike.htm |title=D-Day Memories of the Bridge Player in Chief |first=Karen |last=Walker |website=[[American Contract Bridge League|ACBL]] District 8 |date=June 2009 |access-date=May 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630205253/http://advocate.district8acbl.com/jun09/ike.htm |archive-date=June 30, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== World War I (1914–1918) ==
{{See also|Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}

Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the [[infantry]] at various camps in Texas and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] until 1918. When the US entered [[World War I]], he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to [[Ft. Leavenworth|Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=61–62}}</ref> In February 1918, he was transferred to [[Fort George G. Meade|Camp Meade]] in [[Maryland]] with the [[65th Brigade Engineer Battalion|65th Engineers]]. His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for the new [[Tank Corps, National Army|tank corps]], where he was promoted to [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|lieutenant colonel]] in the [[National Army (USA)|National Army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=62}}</ref> He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at [[Camp Colt, Pennsylvania|Camp Colt]]&nbsp;– his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=63}}</ref>

His spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|armistice]] was signed a week before his departure date.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=65}}</ref> Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the [[Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)|Distinguished Service Medal]] for his work at home.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dwight David Eisenhower |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/17503 |website=MilitaryTimes.com |publisher=Sightline Media Group |access-date=January 30, 2021}}</ref> In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. [[Bernard Montgomery]]) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=68}}</ref>

==Between the Wars (1918–1939)==
=== In service of generals ===
[[File:Eisenhower transcontinental military convoy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Eisenhower (far right) with  friends William Stuhler, Major Brett, and Paul V. Robinson in 1919, four years after graduating from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York|West Point]]]]
After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of [[Captain (U.S. Army)|captain]] and a few days later was promoted to [[Major (United States)|major]], a rank he held for 16 years.<ref name="Ambrose 1983, p. 14">{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=14}}</ref> The major was assigned in 1919 to a [[1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy|transcontinental Army convoy]] to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only {{convert|5|mph|km/h}} from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=69}}</ref>

He assumed duties again at [[Camp Meade]], Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in [[tank warfare]] was strengthened by a close collaboration with [[George S. Patton]], [[Sereno E. Brett]], and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with [[court-martial]] for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sixsmith |first1=E. K. G. |title=Eisenhower, His Life and Campaigns |year=1973 |page=6 |publisher=Conshohocken, PA Combined Publishing}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=70–73}}</ref>

From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals&nbsp;– [[Fox Conner]], [[John J. Pershing]], [[Douglas MacArthur]] and [[George Marshall]]. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the [[Panama Canal Zone]], where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including [[Carl von Clausewitz]]'s ''[[On War]]''), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met."<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=73–76}}</ref> On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended the [[Command and General Staff College]] at [[Fort Leavenworth]], Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/bender/bender.asp |title=Watershed at Leavenworth |access-date=September 6, 2008 |last=Bender |first=Mark C. |year=1990 |publisher=U.S. Army Command and General Staff College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029063505/http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/bender/bender.asp |archive-date=October 29, 2008 }}</ref><ref>American President: An Online Reference Resource, ''Dwight David Eisenhower (1890–1969)'', [http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/biography/2 "Life Before the Presidency"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605065316/http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/biography/2 |date=June 5, 2011 }} Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia.</ref>

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the [[American Battle Monuments Commission]] directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother [[Milton Eisenhower]], then a journalist at the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Agriculture Department]], he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Trout |title=On the Battlefield of Memory: The First World War and American Remembrance, 1919–1941 |year=2010 |pages=xv–xxxii }}</ref> He then was assigned to the [[United States Army War College|Army War College]] and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General [[George Van Horn Moseley|George V. Moseley]], [[United States Assistant Secretary of War|Assistant Secretary of War]], from 1929 to February 1933.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=82}}</ref> Major Eisenhower graduated from the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy|Army Industrial College]] in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://armyhistory.org/general-of-the-army-dwight-david-eisenhower/|title=General of the Army Dwight David Eisenhower|access-date=March 16, 2016|publisher=Army Historical Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324093918/https://armyhistory.org/general-of-the-army-dwight-david-eisenhower/|archive-date=March 24, 2016|url-status=live|date=January 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/Ike/ike.htm|title=Dwight David Eisenhower, The Centennial|access-date=March 16, 2016|year=1990|publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305142924/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/ike/ike.htm|archive-date=March 5, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the [[Great Depression]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=88}}</ref> He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the [[Bonus March]] encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct.<ref name=Wukovits43>{{cite book |title=Eisenhower |last=Wukovits |first=John F. |year=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan  |isbn=978-0-230-61394-2 |page=43 |url={{GBurl|id=om5ZykQFGrwC|p=43}} |access-date=June 15, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life |last=D'Este |first=Carlo |author-link=Carlo D'Este |year=2002 |publisher=Henry Holt & Co.  |isbn=0-8050-5687-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/eisenhowersoldie00dest/page/223 223] |url=https://archive.org/details/eisenhowersoldie00dest |url-access=registration |access-date=June 15, 2011 }}</ref>

===Philippine tenure (1935–1939)===
In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine government]] in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to the mission. Hence he chose [[James Basevi Ord|James Ord]], a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the [[Philippine Army]] and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted the rest of their lives.<ref>Irish, Kerry. "Dwight Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur in the Philippines: There Must Be a Day of Reckoning", ''Journal of Military History'', April 2010, Vol. 74, Issue 2, pp. 439–473.</ref>

Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of [[Winston Churchill]], George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=94}}</ref> While in Manila, Mamie suffered a life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the [[Philippine Army Air Corps]] at the Zablan Airfield in [[Camp Aguinaldo|Camp Murphy]] under Capt. [[Jesús A. Villamor|Jesus Villamor]], making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at [[Fort Lewis (Washington)|Fort Lewis]].<ref name="Villamor">{{cite book |last1=Villamor |first1=Jesus |last2=Snyder |first2=Gerald |title=They Never Surrendered |date=1968 |publisher=Vera-Reyes, Inc. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/finding_aids/pdf/Eisenhower_Dwight_Pre_Presidential_Papers/Principal_File.pdf |title=Dwight D. Eisenhower Pre-Presidential Papers, 1916–52 |publisher=Eisenhower Presidential Library |access-date=August 16, 2017 |year=1997 |page=74 |quote=references to Eisenhower's pilot's license |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209201349/https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/pdf/Eisenhower_Dwight_Pre_Presidential_Papers/Principal_File.pdf |archive-date=February 9, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Air Progress|date=August 1989|page=62|first=Nick|last=Komons|title=unknown title}}</ref> Also around this time, he was offered a post by the [[Philippine Commonwealth]] Government, namely by then Philippine President [[Manuel L. Quezon]] on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named [[Quezon City]], but he declined the offer.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Merrit, Jésus V.|title=Our presidents: profiles in history|page=77|year=1962}}</ref>

== World War II (1939–1945) ==
Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as [[commanding officer]] of the 1st Battalion, [[15th Infantry Regiment (United States)|15th Infantry Regiment]] at [[Fort Lewis (Washington)|Fort Lewis]], Washington, later becoming the regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated [[IX Corps (United States)|IX Corps]] under Major General [[Kenyon Joyce]]. In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General [[Walter Krueger]], Commander of the [[United States Army Central|Third Army]], at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the [[Louisiana Maneuvers]], he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941.<ref>Korda (2007), pp&nbsp;239–243</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/general.html |title=The Eisenhowers: The General |website=Dwightdeisenhower.com |access-date=May 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230101757/http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/general.html |archive-date=December 30, 2010 }}</ref>

After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]], Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General [[Leonard T. Gerow]], and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983}}</ref>

At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. [[Henry H. Arnold]], commanding general of the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Forces]], to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. [[James E. Chaney]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/107447/major-general-james-e-chaney/ |title=Major General James E. Chaney |access-date=August 16, 2017 |publisher=U.S. Air Force |quote=From January 1942 to June 1942, he was the commanding general, U.S. Army Forces in the British Isles. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613062541/http://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/107447/major-general-james-e-chaney/ |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, [[European Theater of Operations]] (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house on [[Coombe, Kingston upon Thames]],<ref>Eisenhower lived in 'Telegraph Cottage', Warren Road, Coombe, from 1942 to 1944. In 1995, a plaque commemorating this was placed there by the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. It can be seen at the north end of Warren Road.</ref> and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney.<ref name="huston">{{cite book| author=Huston, John W.| title=American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold's World War II Diaries| editor=Maj. Gen. John W. Huston, USAF| publisher=Air University Press| isbn=1585660930| year=2002| pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanairpower01arno/page/288 288, 312]| url=https://archive.org/details/americanairpower01arno/page/288}}</ref> He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7.

=== Operations Torch and Avalanche ===
[[File:Major General Dwight Eisenhower, 1942 TR207.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower as a [[Major general (United States)|major general]], 1942]]

In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]] of the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations|North African Theater of Operations]] (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters [[Allied Force Headquarters|Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters]] (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons.{{Failed verification|date=July 2016}} The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned [[Admiralty Tunnel|in the underground headquarters]] within the [[Rock of Gibraltar]]. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command [[Gibraltar]] in 200 years.<ref name=gibraltar>{{cite news|last=Gallagher|first=Wes|title=Eisenhower Commanded Gibraltar|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|access-date=April 29, 2013|newspaper=The Lewiston Daily Sun|date=December 1942|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920042406/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=rGgFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|archive-date=September 20, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Military history of France during World War II|French cooperation]] was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into [[French protectorate of Tunisia|Tunisia]] and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to [[François Darlan]] as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in [[Vichy France]] and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the [[French Armed Forces|French armed forces]]. The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] leaders were "thunderstruck"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized{{by whom|date=March 2019}} for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by [[Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle]], a French antifascist monarchist.<ref>Atkinson, ''An Army at Dawn'', pp. 251–252.</ref> Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General [[Henri Giraud]], who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=204–210}}</ref>

Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' [[Erwin Rommel]]'s move into the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass|Kasserine Pass]], Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of [[Lloyd Fredendall]], commanding [[II Corps (United States)|II Corps]]. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=230–233}}</ref> In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of [[Allied Force Headquarters|AFHQ]] across the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean basin]] to include the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]], commanded by [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had [[Western Desert Campaign|advanced across the Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]].

After the capitulation of [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]]. Once [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the [[Duce|Italian leader]], had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with [[Allied invasion of Italy#Salerno landings|Operation Avalanche]]. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 [[Division (military)|divisions]] and initially outnumbering the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces 2 to 1.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=254–255}}</ref>

=== Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord ===
[[File:Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower s D-Day order of the day.mp3|thumb|General Eisenhower reads his order of the day for June 5, 1944, the day before D-Day.]]
In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower&nbsp;– not Marshall&nbsp;– would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of [[European Theater of Operations, United States Army|ETOUSA]] and the following month was officially designated as the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=275–276}}</ref> He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied [[Normandy landings|assault on the coast of Normandy]] in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hitchcock |first=W |title=[[The Age of Eisenhower]] |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1439175668  |pages=21–23}}</ref>

[[File:Eisenhower d-day.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower speaks with men of the [[502nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment]] (PIR), part of the [[101st Airborne Division|101st "Screaming Eagles" Airborne Division]], on June 5, 1944, the day before the D-Day invasion. The officer Eisenhower is speaking to is First Lieutenant [[Wallace Strobel]].]]

Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with [[Charles De Gaulle|De Gaulle]] to use [[French resistance]] forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=280–281}}</ref> Admiral [[Ernest J. King]] fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=284}}</ref> Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic [[Air warfare of World War II|air forces]] to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=286–288}}</ref> Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=289}}</ref> He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had [[George S. Patton slapping incidents|slapped a subordinate]], and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=250, 298}}</ref>

The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the [[Operation Dragoon|invasion of Southern France]] took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war in Europe]] on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] north of the [[Alps]]. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=278}}</ref> Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history:

{{blockquote|Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.<ref>William Safire, ''Lend me your ears: great speeches in history'' (2004), p. 1143</ref>}}

=== Liberation of France and victory in Europe ===
[[File:Allied Commanders after Germany Surrendered.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower with Allied commanders following the signing of the [[German Instrument of Surrender]] at Reims]]
{{cquote|Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war the classic example of [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]].|source=Eisenhower{{sfn|Grant|2001}}}}

Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his [[21st Army Group]]'s attack being made in the north, while Generals [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]] ([[Twelfth United States Army Group|12th US Army Group]]) and [[Jacob L. Devers|Devers]] ([[Sixth United States Army Group|Sixth US Army Group]]) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at [[Antwerp]] was successfully, albeit belatedly, [[Battle of the Scheldt|opened in late 1944]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=340–354}}</ref>

In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], equivalent to the rank of [[Field Marshal]] in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as [[Winston Churchill]], Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet [[Georgy Zhukov|Marshal Zhukov]], his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.<ref>Jean Edward Smith, ''Eisenhower in War and Peace'' (2012) p. 451.</ref>

In December 1944, the Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the [[Battle of the Bulge]], which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Force]] to engage.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=375–380}}</ref> German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] with the [[Red Army]] and the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture [[Berlin]], but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into [[Czechoslovakia]] for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against [[Stalin's First Government|Moscow]]. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a [[Battle of Berlin|very bloody large-scale battle]], and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=395–406}}</ref>

Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous [[Nazi concentration camps]] throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extend of the [[Holocaust]], Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize [[Nazi crime]]s as propaganda ([[Holocaust denial]]) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of [[Extermination camp|Nazi death camps]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hobbs|1999|p=223}}</ref>

== After World War II (1945–1953) ==

=== Military Governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany ===
[[File:American Sector Germany.png|thumb|General Eisenhower served as military governor of the American zone (highlighted) in [[Allied-occupied Germany]] from May through November 1945.]]
Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in [[Southern Germany]], and [[Office of Military Government, United States|headquartered]] in [[Frankfurt am Main]]. Upon discovery of the [[Nazi concentration camps]], he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. He reclassified German [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] (POWs) in US custody as [[Disarmed Enemy Forces]] (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]]. Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (JCS) in directive [[JCS 1067]] but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more [[fraternization]].<ref>Zink, Harold (1947). ''American Military Government in Germany'', pp. 39–86</ref><ref>Goedde, Petra. "From Villains to Victims: Fraternization and the Feminization of Germany, 1945–1947", ''Diplomatic History'', Winter 1999, Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 1–19</ref><ref>Tent, James F. (1982), ''Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany''</ref> In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment.<ref>Zink, Harold (1957). ''The United States in Germany, 1944–1955''</ref> His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=421–425}}</ref><ref>Goedde, Petra (2002). ''GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender and Foreign Relations, 1945–1949''</ref>

===Army Chief of Staff===
In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff of the Army]]. His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the [[atomic bomb]] and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon."<ref>Richard Rhodes, ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb,'' with Rhodes citing a 1963 profile called "Ike on Ike, in ''Newsweek'' November 11, 1963</ref> Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets.<ref name=Ambrose>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=432–452}}</ref> He even visited [[Warsaw]] in 1945. Invited by [[Bolesław Bierut]] and decorated with the [[Virtuti Militari|highest military decoration]], he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.polskieradio.pl/39/156/Artykul/747362,Dwight-Eisenhower-wielki-Amerykanin-i-wielki-zolnierz |title=Dwight Eisenhower in Poland |publisher=Polish Radio |access-date=April 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420131100/http://www.polskieradio.pl/39/156/Artykul/747362,Dwight-Eisenhower-wielki-Amerykanin-i-wielki-zolnierz |archive-date=April 20, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the [[Greek Civil War]] escalated, Eisenhower agreed with a [[Containment|containment policy]] to stop Soviet expansion.<ref name="Ambrose" />

=== 1948 presidential election ===
In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, [[Merlo J. Pusey]] wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of the Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the [[Potsdam Conference]] that if desired, the president would help the general win the [[1948 United States presidential election|1948 election]],<ref name="pusey1956">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/eisenhowerthepre002645mbp#page/n11/mode/2up | title=Eisenhower, the President | publisher=Macmillan | author=Pusey, Merlo J. | year=1956 | pages=1–6 | access-date=November 7, 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021230806/https://archive.org/stream/eisenhowerthepre002645mbp#page/n11/mode/2up | archive-date=October 21, 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination.<ref name="nyt20030711">"[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/11/us/truman-wrote-of-48-offer-to-eisenhower.html Truman Wrote of '48 Offer to Eisenhower] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603084430/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/11/us/truman-wrote-of-48-offer-to-eisenhower.html |date=June 3, 2017 }}" ''The New York Times'', July 11, 2003.</ref>

As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in [[New Hampshire]] to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming [[1948 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]], Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office".{{r|pusey1956}} Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president as Republican [[Thomas E. Dewey]] was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would be too old to run.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=455–460}}</ref>

=== President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander ===
[[File:Eisenhower Yule Log.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower lighting the Columbia University Yule Log, 1949]]
[[File:EisenhowerAlmaMater.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower posing in front of ''[[Alma Mater (New York sculpture)|Alma Mater]]'' at Columbia in 1953]]
[[File:General Eisenhower presents Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru an honorary degree from Columbia University.jpg|thumb|As [[President of Columbia University|president of Columbia]], Eisenhower presents an honorary degree to [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].]]
In 1948, Eisenhower became President of [[Columbia University]], an [[Ivy League]] university in [[New York City]], where he was inducted into [[Phi Beta Kappa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbk.org/WEB/pbkdocs/Phi%20Beta%20Kappa%20Presidents%20.pdf |title=ΦΒΚ U.S. Presidents |access-date=August 16, 2017 |publisher=Phi Beta Kappa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008021125/https://www.pbk.org/WEB/pbkdocs/Phi%20Beta%20Kappa%20Presidents%20.pdf |archive-date=October 8, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The choice was subsequently characterized as not having been a good fit for either party.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|loc=ch. 24}}</ref> During that year, Eisenhower's memoir, ''[[Crusade in Europe]]'', was published.<ref>''Crusade in Europe'', Doubleday; 1st edition (1948), 559 pages, {{ISBN|1125300914}}</ref> It was a major financial success.<ref name="owen-171-172"/> Eisenhower sought the advice of Augusta National's Roberts about the tax implications of this,<ref name="owen-171-172">{{harvnb|Owen|1999|pp=171–172}}</ref> and in due course Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by what author [[David Pietrusza]] calls "a ruling without precedent" by the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]].  It held that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.<ref>Pietrusza, David, ''1948: Harry Truman's Victory and the Year That Transformed America'', Union Square Publishing, 2011, p. 201</ref>

Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia was punctuated by his activity within the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], a study group he led concerning the political and military implications of the [[Marshall Plan]] and [[The American Assembly]], Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature".<ref name="warshaw-20"/> His biographer [[Blanche Wiesen Cook]] suggested that this period served his "the political education", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university.<ref>{{harvnb|Cook|1981|loc=ch. 3}}</ref> Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed.<ref>{{harvnb|Cook|1981|p=79}}</ref>

Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education.<ref name="warshaw-18">{{harvnb|Jacobs|1993|p=18}}</ref> He was clear on this point to the trustees on the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy".<ref name="warshaw-18"/> As a result, he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.<ref name="warshaw-20">{{harvnb|Jacobs|1993|p=20}}</ref>

Within months of becoming university president, Eisenhower was requested to advise Secretary of Defense [[James Forrestal]] on the unification of the armed services.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=140–141}}</ref> About six months after his appointment, he became the informal [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] in Washington.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=145–146}}</ref> Two months later he fell ill with what was diagnosed as acute gastroenteritis, and he spent over a month in recovery at the [[Augusta National Golf Club]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=162–164}}</ref> He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=168–169, 175}}</ref> Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during summer and fall 1950, building financial support for it, including from [[Columbia Associates]], a recently created alumni and benefactor organization for which he had helped recruit members.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=152, 238–242, 245–249}}</ref>
Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=479–483}}</ref> The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fundraising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

He did have some successes at Columbia.  Puzzled as to why no American university had undertaken the "continuous study of the causes, conduct and consequences of war",<ref name="y-s-ix"/> Eisenhower undertook the creation of the [[Institute of War and Peace Studies]], a research facility to "study war as a tragic social phenomenon".<ref name="jacobs-235-236">{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=235–236}}</ref>  Eisenhower was able to use his network of wealthy friends and acquaintances to secure initial funding for it.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=484–485}}</ref> Under its founding director, international relations scholar [[William T. R. Fox]], the institute began in 1951 and became a pioneer in [[international security studies]], one that would be emulated by other institutes in the United States and Britain later in the decade.<ref name="y-s-ix">{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|p=ix}}</ref> The Institute of War and Peace Studies thus became one of the projects which Eisenhower considered his "unique contribution" to Columbia.<ref name="jacobs-235-236"/> As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy. His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|1993|pp=17ff}}</ref>

The trustees of Columbia University declined to accept Eisenhower's offer to resign in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|pp=251–254}}</ref> Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on June 3, 1952,<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|p=279}}</ref> and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. Meanwhile, Eisenhower had become the Republican Party nominee for president of the United States, a contest that he won on November 4. Eisenhower tendered his resignation as university president on November 15, 1952, effective January 19, 1953, the day before his inauguration.<ref>{{harvnb|Jacobs|2001|p=299}}</ref>

At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been. By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=502–511}}</ref>

=== Presidential campaign of 1952 ===
{{Main|1952 United States presidential election}}
{{See also|Draft Eisenhower movement}}
[[File:I Like Ike button, 1952.svg|thumb|upright|Eisenhower button from the 1952 campaign]]
President Truman sensed a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, and he again pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat in 1951. But Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] and declared himself to be a Republican.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=512}}</ref> A "[[Draft Eisenhower]]" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator [[Robert A. Taft]]. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty to offer himself as a candidate and that there was a mandate from the public for him to be their president. [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] and others succeeded in convincing him, and he resigned his command at NATO in June 1952 to campaign full-time.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=524–528}}</ref>
[[File:1952 Ike For President Ad.webm|thumb|"I Like Ike" televised campaign ad, 1952]]
Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. His campaign was noted for the simple slogan "[[I Like Ike]]". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at the [[Yalta Conference]] and to Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=530}}</ref><ref name="time 2008">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html|magazine=Time|date=November 10, 2008|title=When New President Meets Old, It's Not Always Pretty|first=Nancy|last=Gibbs|access-date=November 12, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081111030347/http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html|archive-date=November 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right-wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard Nixon as the vice-president on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] reputation, as well as youth to counter Eisenhower's more advanced age.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=541–546}}</ref>
[[File:ElectoralCollege1952.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|1952 electoral vote results]]

Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the [[Southern United States|South]] in the general election, against the advice of his campaign team, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats. The campaign strategy was dubbed "K<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>" and was intended to focus on attacking the Truman administration on three failures: the Korean War, [[Red-baiting|Communism]], and [[Corruption in the United States|corruption]].<ref>Herbert H. Hyman, and Paul B. Sheatsley, "The political appeal of President Eisenhower." ''Public Opinion Quarterly'' 17.4 (1953): 443-460 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2746036 online].</ref>

Two controversies tested him and his staff, but they did not damage the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon [[Checkers speech|spoke out adroitly]] to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=556–567}}</ref> Eisenhower condemned "wickedness in government", an allusion to gay government employees who were [[lavender scare|conflated with communism]] during McCarthyism.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Lavender Scare |first=David K. |last=Johnson |date=March 22, 2023 |isbn=978-0226825724 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |page=121 }}</ref>

Eisenhower defeated Democratic candidate [[Adlai Stevenson II]] in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.<ref name="time 2008" /> He also brought a Republican majority in the House, by eight votes, and in the Senate, evenly divided with Vice President Nixon providing Republicans the majority.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|p=571}}</ref>

Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and he was the oldest president-elect at age 62 since [[James Buchanan]] in 1856.<ref name="'70s">{{harvnb|Frum|2000|p=7}}</ref> He was the third commanding general of the Army to serve as president, after [[George Washington]] and [[Ulysses S. Grant]], and the last not to have held political office prior to becoming president until [[Donald Trump]] entered office in January 2017.<ref>{{cite web| last=Crockett| first=Zachary| title=Donald Trump is the only US president ever with no political or military experience| url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2016/11/11/13587532/donald-trump-no-experience| website=vox.com| date=January 23, 2017| access-date=January 8, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106051351/http://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2016/11/11/13587532/donald-trump-no-experience| archive-date=January 6, 2017| url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Election of 1956 ===
{{Main|1956 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1956.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|1956 electoral vote results]]
In the United States presidential election of 1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, was re-elected. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]], and [[West Virginia]] from Stevenson, while losing [[Missouri]]. His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time "was the response to personal qualities — to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Angus|last1=Campbell|first2=Philip L.|last2=Converse|first3=Warren E.|last3=Miller|first4=Donald E.|last4=Stokes|title=The American Voter|url={{GBurl|id=JeYUrs_GOcMC|p=56}}|year=1960|page=56|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226092546}}</ref>

== Presidency (1953–1961) ==
{{Main|Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
{{for timeline|Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency}}
Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations due to a complete estrangement between them as a result of campaigning.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=14}}</ref> Eisenhower selected [[Joseph Dodge|Joseph M. Dodge]] as his budget director, then asked [[Herbert Brownell Jr.]] and [[Lucius D. Clay]] to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included [[John Foster Dulles]] and [[George M. Humphrey]] with whom he developed his closest relationships, as well as [[Oveta Culp Hobby]]. His cabinet consisted of several corporate executives and one labor leader, and one journalist dubbed it "eight millionaires and a plumber".<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=24}}</ref> The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] in planning all phases of the Cold War.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=20–25}}</ref>

Before his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at [[Pearl Harbor]] where they set goals for his first term: balance the budget, end the Korean War, defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and end price and wage controls.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=32}}</ref> He also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=43}}</ref>

[[File:Dwight D. Eisenhower, White House photo portrait, February 1959.jpg|thumb|upright|February 1959 White House portrait]]
Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms. He saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, and he saw value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=52}}</ref>

Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.<ref name="allida">{{cite web |editor-last1=Black |editor-first1=Allida |editor-last2=Hopkins |editor-first2=June |display-editors=etal |year=2003 |work=Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site |title=Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt: Dwight Eisenhower |access-date=November 26, 2011 |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/eisenhower-dwight.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105034523/http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/eisenhower-dwight.htm |archive-date=January 5, 2007}}</ref> He described himself as a "[[Progressive conservatism|progressive conservative]]"<ref name="EisenhowerEisenhower2011">{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Eisenhower|author2=Julie Nixon Eisenhower|title=Going Home To Glory: A Memoir of Life with Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1961–1969|url={{GBurl|id=yawcVhHVwNsC|p=126}}|date=October 11, 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1439190913|page=126}}</ref> and used terms such as "progressive moderate" and "dynamic conservatism" to describe his approach.<ref>{{cite book |url={{GBurl|id=CW3VAwAAQBAJ|p=270}} |title=Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower |isbn=978-1623768300 |last=Eisenhower |first=Dwight D. |year=1959 |page=270 |publisher=Best Books on }}</ref> He continued all the major [[New Deal]] programs still in operation, especially [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. He expanded its programs and rolled them into the new Cabinet-level agency of the [[Department of Health, Education and Welfare]], while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented [[Integration of the United States military|racial integration in the Armed Services]] in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.<ref name="Miller">{{cite news |author=Miller, James A. |date=November 21, 2007 |title=An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record |newspaper=The Boston Globe |url=http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107182758/http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order |archive-date=January 7, 2012 }}</ref>

In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:

{{blockquote|Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things [...] Their number is negligible and they are stupid.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mayer|first=Michael S.|url=https://archive.org/details/eisenhoweryears0000maye|title=The Eisenhower Years|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8160-5387-2|page=xii|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref>}}

When the [[1954 United States elections|1954 Congressional elections]] approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses. Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. He then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose&nbsp;... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it&nbsp;... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=220}}</ref>

Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but he remained flexible in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. He was recovering from a heart attack late in September 1955 when he met with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group concluded that a second term was well advised, and he announced that he would run again in February 1956.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=285–288}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jean Edward Smith|title=Eisenhower in War and Peace|url={{GBurl|id=jO2gLXNNa2wC|p=674}}|year=2012|publisher=Random House|pages=674–683|isbn=978-0679644293|access-date=June 27, 2015}}</ref> Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about having Nixon as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored [[Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)|Robert B. Anderson]], a Democrat who rejected his offer, so Eisenhower resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party, which chose Nixon nearly unanimously.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=321–325}}</ref> In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6 percent of the popular vote. His campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=297}}</ref>

Eisenhower made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support; he rarely drove or even dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=25}}</ref> On August 26, 1959, he was aboard the maiden flight of [[Air Force One]], which replaced the ''Columbine'' as the presidential aircraft.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=537}}</ref>

===Atoms for Peace===
{{See also|History of nuclear power|History of nuclear weapons}}
Eisenhower gave the [[Atoms for Peace]] speech to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 8 December 1953, advocating for constructive use of [[nuclear fission]] for [[Nuclear energy policy of the United States|electrical energy]] and [[nuclear medicine]] instead of [[nuclear arms race]] [[Nuclear proliferation|proliferation]]. The speech lead to the [[Atomic Energy Act of 1954]] which allowed the civilian world to develop nuclear fission technology for peaceful and prosperous purposes.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech | title=Atoms for Peace Speech | date=July 16, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-atomic-energy-act | title=Summary of the Atomic Energy Act | date=February 22, 2013 }}</ref>

=== Interstate Highway System ===
{{Main|Interstate Highway System}}
{{listen
| filename     = Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg
| title        = Remarks in Cadillac Square, Detroit
| description  = President Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954<br />[https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/audiotext.cfm Text of speech excerpt]
}}

Eisenhower championed and signed the bill that authorized the [[Interstate Highway System]] in 1956.<ref name="economist">{{cite news|title=The cracks are showing|newspaper=The Economist|date=June 26, 2008|url=http://www.economist.com/obituary/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8447241|access-date=October 23, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071120044855/http://www.economist.com/obituary/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8447241|archive-date=November 20, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> He justified the project through the [[Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956]] as essential to American security during the [[Cold War]].

Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the Army's 1919 [[Transcontinental Motor Convoy]]. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of Army vehicles coast to coast.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.usswashington.com/dl30au39h1.htm |title=The Last Week&nbsp;– The Road to War |publisher=[[USS Washington (BB-56)]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323225351/http://www.usswashington.com/dl30au39h1.htm |archive-date=March 23, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://usswashington.com/worldwar2plus55/index.htm |title=About the Author |publisher=[[USS Washington (BB-56)]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513084502/http://www.usswashington.com/worldwar2plus55/index.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref> His subsequent experience with the German [[Reichsautobahn|autobahn]] convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. The system could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. Franklin D. Roosevelt put this system into place with the [[Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944]]. He thought that an interstate highway system would be beneficial for military operations and would support continued economic growth.<ref name=archivesIHS>{{cite web|access-date=August 21, 2012|url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/interstate_highway_system.html|title=Interstate Highway System|publisher=[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117094324/http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/interstate_highway_system.html|archive-date=January 17, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The legislation initially stalled in Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and Eisenhower signed the law in June 1956.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=301, 326}}</ref>

===ARPA===
The [[DARPA#History|Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)]] was put together by Eisenhower and his [[President's Science Advisory Committee|Science Advisory Committee]] in early 1958 in response to the successful launch of the first orbital satellite from the Soviet Union [[Sputnik 1]]. ARPA eventually created the [[ARPANET]] which was a predecessor to the [[internet]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.weber.edu/digitalhistory/internet_history.html | title=Internet History }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://engines.egr.uh.edu/episode/3144 | title=The Birth of the Internet &#124; the Engines of Our Ingenuity }}</ref>

=== Foreign policy ===

[[File:Nasser and Eisenhower, 1960.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower with Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] during Nasser's visit to United Nations in New York, September 1960.]]
[[File:Indo US.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower with Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].]]
[[File:U.S. President Eisenhower visited TAIWAN 美國總統艾森豪於1960年6月訪問臺灣台北時與蔣中正總統-2.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower visits the Republic of China and its President [[Chiang Kai-shek]] in Taipei.]]
{{Excerpt|Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration|templates=no}}

==== Space Race ====
{{Further|Space Race}}
[[File:1974S Eisenhower Reverse.jpg|thumb|In the 1970s the reverse of the [[Eisenhower dollar]] celebrated America's Moon landings, which began 11 years after NASA was created during Eisenhower's presidency]]
Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before [[Sputnik 1|''Sputnik'']], that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.<ref>John M. Logsdon, "Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program" (NASA; 1995)</ref>

Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling [[United States space program|space program]] was officially modest until the Soviet launch of [[Sputnik]] in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space".<ref>Logsdon, John M., and Lear, Linda J. Exploring the Unknown:Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program/ Washington D.C.</ref> His [[Treaty on Open Skies|Open Skies]] Policy attempted to legitimize illegal [[Lockheed U-2]] flyovers and [[Project Genetrix]] while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory,<ref>W. D. Kay, Defining NASA The Historical Debate Over the Agency's Mission, 2005.</ref> but [[Nikolai Bulganin]] and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955.<ref>Parmet, Herbert S. Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972)</ref> In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created [[NASA]] as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.<ref>Yankek Mieczkowski, ''Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige'' (Cornell University Press; 2013)</ref>

Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread [[communism]], so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a [[Reconnaissance satellite|surveillance satellite]] to detect any threats but [[ballistic missile]]s that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of [[Deterrence theory|nuclear deterrence]] based upon the [[Nuclear triad|triad]] of [[strategic bomber]]s, land-based [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs), and [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs).<ref>Peter J. Roman, ''Eisenhower and the Missile Gap'' (1996)</ref>

NASA planners projected that [[human spaceflight]] would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly.<ref>The Presidents's Science Advisory Committee, "Report of the Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space" December 16, 1960. NASA Historical Collection</ref> Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts."<ref>Greg Ward, "A Rough Guide History of the USA" (Penguin Group: London, 2003)</ref>

==== Korean War, Free China and Red China ====
In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese [[People's Volunteer Army]] began a buildup in the [[Kaesong]] sanctuary, he considered using nuclear weapons if an armistice was not reached. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Michael Gordon|date=2005|title=Beyond Brinkmanship: Eisenhower, Nuclear War Fighting, and Korea, 1953–1968|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27552659|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=35|issue=1|pages=52–75|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00235.x|jstor=27552659|issn=0360-4918}}</ref>  His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=51}}</ref> The National Security Council, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and the [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Matthew|last=Jones|title=Targeting China: U.S. Nuclear Planning and 'Massive Retaliation' in East Asia, 1953–1955|journal=Journal of Cold War Studies|year=2008|volume=10|issue=4|pages=37–65 |doi=10.1162/jcws.2008.10.4.37|s2cid=57564482 |issn = 1520-3972 }}</ref> With the death of Stalin in March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communist hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.<ref name="Ambrose 1984, p. 106–7">{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=106–107}}</ref>

[[File:1951 Chung Baik Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower in Korea with General [[Chung Il-kwon]], and [[Baik Seon-yup]], 1952]]

In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along [[Military Demarcation Line|approximately the same boundary as in 1950]]. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today. The armistice, which concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President [[Syngman Rhee]], and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer [[Stephen E. Ambrose]] as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.<ref name="Ambrose 1984, p. 106–7" />

A point of emphasis in Eisenhower's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment. This remained his preference despite the armistice with Korea.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=173}}</ref> Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Qiang|last=Zhai|title=Crisis and Confrontations: Chinese-American Relations during the Eisenhower Administration|journal=Journal of American-East Asian Relations|year=2000|volume=9|issue=3/4|pages=221–249|doi=10.1163/187656100793645921|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the legitimate government of China, not the Peking (Beijing) regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of [[Quemoy]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] in September 1954. Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response; he thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded.<ref name="Ambrose 1984, p. 231">{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=231}}</ref>

The [[Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty]] with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level in defense of Free China and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists and signaled to Beijing that the US was committed to holding the line.<ref name="Ambrose 1984, p. 231" />

During the [[First Taiwan Strait Crisis|First Taiwan Strait crisis]], Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons against PRC military targets in [[Fujian]].<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK}}</ref>{{Rp|page=89}} These threats prompted Mao Zedong to launch [[China and weapons of mass destruction|China's nuclear weapons program]].<ref name=":17" />{{Rp|pages=89–90}} He authorized a series of bomb tests labeled [[Operation Teapot]]. Nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives—the end of this communist encroachment, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=245, 246}}</ref> Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Robert|last=Accinelli|title=Eisenhower, Congress, and the 1954–55 offshore island crisis|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|year=1990|volume=20|issue=2|pages=329–348|jstor=27550618}}</ref>

China invited some American reporters to China in 1956, having previously ousted American reporters after the PRC's founding.<ref name=":Minami2">{{Cite book |last=Minami |first=Kazushi |title=People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=9781501774157 |location=Ithaca, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=115–116}} Eisenhower upheld the U.S. ban on travel to China.<ref name=":Minami2" />{{Rp|page=116}} U.S. newspapers, including [[The New York Times|''The'' ''New York Times'']] and [[The Washington Post|''The'' ''Washington Post'']] criticized the Eisenhower's administration decision as antithetical to the free press.<ref name=":Minami2" />{{Rp|page=116}}

==== Southeast Asia ====
{{further|United States in the Vietnam War}}
Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in [[French Indochina]] against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the [[First Indochina War]]. Eisenhower sent Lt. General [[John W. O'Daniel]] to Vietnam to assess the French forces there.<ref>Dunnigan, James and [[Albert Nofi|Nofi, Albert]] (1999), ''Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War''. St. Martins Press, p. 85.</ref> Chief of Staff [[Matthew Ridgway]] dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=175}}</ref>

Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop [[napalm]] for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet&nbsp;– allied participation and congressional approval.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=175–157}}</ref> When the French fortress of [[Dien Bien Phu]] fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urging from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=185}}</ref>

Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the [[SEATO]] (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the UK, France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened the Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the US would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.<ref name="Nofi Albert p 257">Dunnigan, James and Nofi, Albert (1999), ''Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War'', p. 257</ref> Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the US out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had put the US back into the conflict.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=204–209}}</ref>

In late 1954, [[J. Lawton Collins|Gen. J. Lawton Collins]] was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam", effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=215}}</ref> In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (commonly known as [[South Vietnam]]) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.<ref>{{cite book|first=David L.|last=Anderson|title=Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953–1961|url={{GBurl|id=tM88nZNx2J8C}}|year=1991|publisher=Columbia U.P.|isbn=978-0231515337}}</ref>

In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm |title=Vietnam War |publisher=Swarthmore College Peace Collection |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803124531/http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm |archive-date=August 3, 2016 }}</ref> This was due to [[North Vietnam]]'s support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.<ref name="Nofi Albert p 257" /> In May 1957 Diem, then [[Leaders of South Vietnam|President of South Vietnam]], [[Ngo Dinh Diem presidential visit to the United States|made a state visit]] to the United States. Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.<ref>Karnow, Stanley. (1991), ''Vietnam, A History'', p. 230.</ref>

After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower, in a briefing with John F. Kennedy, pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.<ref>Reeves, Richard (1993), ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'', p. 75.</ref>

==== Legitimation of Francoist Spain ====
{{Main|Pact of Madrid}}
[[File:Franco eisenhower 1959 madrid.jpg|thumb|Spanish dictator [[Francisco Franco]] and Eisenhower in [[Madrid]] in 1959]]
The Pact of Madrid, signed on September 23, 1953, by [[Francoist Spain]] and the United States, was a significant effort to break [[international isolation]] of Spain, together with the [[Concordat of 1953]]. This development came at a time when other victorious Allies and much of the rest of the world remained hostile{{efn|For the 1946 United Nations condemnation<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.derechoshumanos.net/memoriahistorica/1946-Resolucion-ONU.htm|title=Resolution 39 (I) of the UN General Assembly on the Spanish question.}}</ref> of the Francoist regime, see "[[Spanish Question (United Nations)|Spanish Question]]"}} to a [[Fascism|fascist]] regime sympathetic to the cause of the former [[Axis powers]] and [[German involvement in the Spanish Civil War|established with Nazi assistance]]. This accord took the form of three separate executive agreements that pledged the United States to furnish [[foreign aid|economic]] and [[military aid]] to Spain.

==== Middle East and Eisenhower doctrine ====
[[File:ShahEisenhower.jpg|thumb|upright|Eisenhower with the Shah of Iran, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] (1959)]]

Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power. He therefore [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|authorized the CIA]] to overthrow Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]].<ref>Eisenhower gave verbal approval to Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] and to Director of Central Intelligence [[Allen Dulles]] to proceed with the coup; Ambrose, ''Eisenhower, Vol. 2: The President'' p. 111; Ambrose (1990), ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'', New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 333.</ref> This resulted in increased strategic control over Iranian oil by [[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|US and British companies]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=129}}</ref>

In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the [[Suez Crisis]], receiving praise from Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]] in response to the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]]. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.<ref>Kingseed, Cole (1995), ''Eisenhower and the Suez Crisis of 1956'', ch. 6</ref> Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, published in 1965.<ref>Dwight D. Eisenhower, ''Waging Peace: 1956–1961'' (1965) p. 99</ref>

After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "[[Eisenhower Doctrine]]".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lahav|first=Pnina|title=The Suez Crisis of 1956 and Its Aftermath: A Comparative Study of Constitutions, Use of Force, Diplomacy and International Relations|url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1199&context=faculty_scholarship|journal=Boston University Law Review|volume=95}}</ref> Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the US would be "prepared to use armed force&nbsp;... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the US would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.<ref>Isaac Alteras, ''Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.–Israeli Relations, 1953–1960'' (1993), p. 296.</ref>

Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–1958 by dispensing economic aid to Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] and soldiers to Lebanon as part of [[Operation Blue Bat]], a non-combat peacekeeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution.<ref name="Little 1996 27–54">{{cite journal|last=Little|first=Douglas|title=His finest hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis|journal=Diplomatic History|year=1996|volume=20|issue=1|pages=27–54|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00251.x}}</ref> The Marines departed three months later. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.<ref name="Little 1996 27–54" />

Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. However, Egypt received American aid until the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hahn|first=Peter L.|title=Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|year=2006|volume=36|issue=1|pages=38–47|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00285.x}}</ref>

As the [[Cold War]] deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the [[Soviet Union]] by building regional alliances against it. Critics sometimes called it "[[Pactomania|pacto-mania]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Navari|first=Cornelia|year=2000|title=Internationalism and the State in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Routledge|page=316|isbn=978-0415097475}}</ref>

==== 1960 U-2 incident ====
{{Excerpt|1960 U-2 incident|templates=no|files=no}}

=== Civil rights ===

While President Truman's 1948 [[Executive Order 9981]] had begun the process of [[Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces|desegregating the Armed Forces]], actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first [[State of the Union address]] in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the [[Federal government of the United States|Federal Government]], and any segregation in the Armed Forces".<ref>State of the Union Address, February 2, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 pp. 30–31.</ref> When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended&nbsp;..., I do not see how any American can justify&nbsp;... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9798|title=Eisenhower Press Conference, March 19, 1953|publisher=The American Presidency Project|access-date=October 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131044238/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9798|archive-date=January 31, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> When [[Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)|Robert B. Anderson]], Eisenhower's first [[Secretary of the Navy]], argued that the [[US Navy]] must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower overruled him: "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country."<ref>Byrnes to DDE, August 27, 1953, Eisenhower Library"</ref>

The administration declared [[racial discrimination]] a [[national security]] issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the US as a point of propaganda attack.<ref>[[Dudziak, Mary L.]] (2002), ''Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy''</ref>

Eisenhower told [[Washington, D.C.]] officials to make the city a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public-school children.<ref>{{harvnb|Eisenhower|1963|p=230}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Parmet|1972|pp=438–439}}</ref> He proposed to Congress the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] and [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|of 1960]] and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] and a [[Civil Rights Commission]] to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts [[Civil Rights Act of 1875|since 1875]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Michael S.|last=Mayer|title=The Eisenhower Administration and the Civil Rights Act of 1957|journal=Congress & the Presidency|year=1989|volume=16|issue=2|pages=137–154|doi=10.1080/07343468909507929}}</ref>

In 1957 [[Arkansas]] refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the ''[[Brown v. Board of Education|Brown]]'' decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor [[Orval Faubus]] obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the [[Arkansas Army National Guard|Arkansas National Guard]] under federal control and sent in the [[101st Airborne Division]]. They protected [[Little Rock Nine|nine black students]]' entry to [[Little Rock Central High School]], an all-white public school, marking the first time since the [[Reconstruction Era]] the federal government had used federal troops in the South to enforce the Constitution.<ref>{{cite book|first=David|last=Nichol|title=A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution|year=2007|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1416541509|url=https://archive.org/details/matterofjusticee00nich}}</ref> [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]".<ref>to DDE, September 25, 1957, Eisenhower Library</ref>

Eisenhower's administration contributed to the McCarthyist [[Lavender Scare]]<ref>{{cite web|title=An interview with David K. Johnson author of The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html|website=press.uchicago.edu|publisher=The University of Chicago|date=2004|access-date=December 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220210821/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html|archive-date=December 20, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> with Eisenhower issuing [[Executive Order 10450]] in 1953.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Adkins|first1=Judith|title='These People Are Frightened to Death' Congressional Investigations and the Lavender Scare|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html|website=archives.gov|publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|quote=Most significantly, the 1950 congressional investigations and the Hoey committee's final report helped institutionalize discrimination by laying the groundwork for President Dwight D. Eisenhower's 1953 Executive Order #10450, 'Security Requirements for Government Employment.' That order explicitly added sexuality to the criteria used to determine suitability for federal employment.|access-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116083139/https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html|archive-date=January 16, 2018|url-status=live|date=August 15, 2016}}</ref> During Eisenhower's presidency thousands of [[LGBT|lesbian and gay]] applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual.<ref name=documenting>{{cite book|last1=Sears|first1=Brad|last2=Hunter|first2=Nan D.|last3=Mallory|first3=Christy|title=Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment|date=September 2009|publisher=The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at the University of California Los Angeles School of Law|pages=5–3|url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|quote=From 1947 to 1961, more than 5,000 allegedly homosexual federal civil servants lost their jobs in the purges for no reason other than sexual orientation, and thousands of applicants were also rejected for federal employment for the same reason. During this period, more than 1,000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone—a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party.|access-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206215755/http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Adkins|first1=Judith|title='These People Are Frightened to Death' Congressional Investigations and the Lavender Scare|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html|website=archives.gov|publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|quote=Historians estimate that somewhere between 5,000 and tens of thousands of gay workers lost their jobs during the Lavender Scare.|access-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116083139/https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html|archive-date=January 16, 2018|url-status=live|date=August 15, 2016}}</ref> From 1947 to 1961 the number of firings based on sexual orientation were far greater than those for membership in the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]],<ref name=documenting /> and government officials intentionally campaigned to make "homosexual" synonymous with "Communist traitor" such that LGBT people were treated as a national security threat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sears|first1=Brad|last2=Hunter|first2=Nan D.|last3=Mallory|first3=Christy|title=Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment|date=September 2009|publisher=The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at the University of California Los Angeles School of Law|pages=5–3|url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|quote=Johnson has demonstrated that during this era government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism: 'homosexual' and 'pervert' became synonyms for 'Communist' and 'traitor.'|access-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206215755/http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Relations with Congress ===

[[File:Dwight D. Eisenhower, official Presidential portrait.jpg|thumb|left|Official White House portrait of Eisenhower, {{circa|1960}}]]

Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, Republicans held the majority by a one-vote margin. Despite being Eisenhower's political opponent for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, Senator Majority Leader Robert A. Taft assisted Eisenhower a great deal by promoting the President's proposals among the "Old Guard" Republican Senators. Taft's death in July 1953&mdash;six months into Eisenhower's presidency&mdash;affected Eisenhower both personally and professionally. The President noted he had lost "a dear friend" with Taft's passing. Eisenhower disliked Taft's successor as Majority Leader, Senator [[William Knowland]], and the relationship between the two men led to tension between the Senate and the White House.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=118–119}}</ref>

This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from the involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=56–62}}</ref> In late 1953, McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the [[1954 United States Senate elections|1954 Senate elections]]. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=140}}</ref>

Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) into McCarthy's witchhunt, which might interfere with the AEC's work on [[hydrogen bomb]]s and other weapons programs.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=167}}</ref><ref name="y-s-132">{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|p=132}}</ref> In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that nuclear scientist [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] had been accused of being a spy for the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=305–306}}</ref>  Although Eisenhower never really believed these allegations,<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|p=305}}</ref> in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|p=128}}</ref> The [[Oppenheimer security hearing]] later that year resulted in the physicist losing his security clearance.<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=310–311}}</ref> The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom.<ref name="y-s-132"/> The case would reflect poorly on Eisenhower, but the president had never examined it in any detail and had instead relied excessively upon the advice of his subordinates, especially that of AEC chairman [[Lewis Strauss]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=316–317}}</ref> Eisenhower later suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer matter.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|pp=147, 150}}</ref>

In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters&nbsp;... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as [[executive privilege]]. Eisenhower's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters and contributed to his ultimate downfall.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=188–189}}</ref>

In early 1954, the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the [[Bricker Amendment]], which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the [[Yalta Agreement]]s. Eisenhower opposed the measure.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=154}}</ref> The Old Guard agreed with Eisenhower on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=157}}</ref>

The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=219}}</ref> Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (later US president) in the Senate and Speaker [[Sam Rayburn]] in the House. [[Joseph W. Martin Jr.|Joe Martin]], the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, [[Leonard W. Hall]], for example, who as chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]] tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance."<ref name=martin>Joseph W. Martin as told to Donavan, Robert J. (1960), ''My First Fifty Years in Politics'', New York: McGraw Hill, p. 227</ref>

Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking."<ref name=martin />

Eisenhower was relatively active with [[Eisenhower vetoes|legislative vetoes]], with 181 vetoes of which only two were overridden.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/vetoes/EisenhowerDD.htm | title=U.S. Senate: Vetoes by President Dwight D. Eisenhower }}</ref>

=== Judicial appointments ===

==== Supreme Court ====
{{Main|Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates|Dwight D. Eisenhower judicial appointments}}
Eisenhower appointed the following [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justices]] to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Earl Warren]], 1953 ([[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]])
* [[John Marshall Harlan II]], 1954
* [[William J. Brennan]], 1956
* [[Charles Evans Whittaker]], 1957
* [[Potter Stewart]], 1958

Whittaker was unsuited for the role and retired in 1962, after Eisenhower's presidency had ended. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism.<ref>Newton, ''Eisenhower'' (2011) pp. 356–357</ref> In selecting a Chief Justice, Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court&nbsp;... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/460.cfm |last1=Eisenhower |first1=Dwight D. |title=Personal and confidential To Milton Stover Eisenhower |date=9 October 1953 |work=Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower |id=doc. 460 |publisher=Eisenhower Memorial |access-date=January 26, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118180711/http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/460.cfm |archive-date=January 18, 2012 }}</ref>

=== States admitted to the Union ===
Two states were [[admitted to the Union]] during Eisenhower's presidency.
* [[Alaska]]&nbsp;– January 3, 1959 (49th state)
* Hawaii&nbsp;– August 21, 1959 (50th state)

=== Health issues ===
Eisenhower began [[chain smoking]] cigarettes at West Point, often three or four packs a day. He joked that he "gave [himself] an order" to stop [[cold turkey]] in 1949. However, [[Evan Thomas]] says the true story was more complex. At first, he removed cigarettes and [[ashtray]]s, but that did not work. He told a friend:
{{blockquote|I decided to make a game of the whole business and try to achieve a feeling of some superiority&nbsp;... So I stuffed cigarettes in every pocket, put them around my office on the desk&nbsp;... [and] made it a practice to offer a cigarette to anyone who came in&nbsp;... while mentally reminding myself as I sat down, "I do not have to do what that poor fellow is doing."<ref>{{cite book|first=Evan|last=Thomas|title=Ike's Bluff: President Eisenhower's Secret Battle to Save the World|url=https://archive.org/details/ikesbluffpreside0000thom|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/ikesbluffpreside0000thom/page/175 175]|year=2012|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=978-0316217279|access-date=April 28, 2017}}</ref>}}

He was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office, but people around him deliberately misled the public about his health. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in [[Colorado]], he had a serious [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]]. While [[Convalescence|convalescing]] at [[Fitzsimons Army Medical Center|Building 500]]<ref>Newton, ''Eisenhower'' pp. 196–199.</ref> [[Howard McCrum Snyder]], his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as [[indigestion]], and failed to call in help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to allow Eisenhower to imply that he was healthy enough to do his job.<ref>Clarence G. Lasby, ''Eisenhower's Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held on to the Presidency'' (1997) pp. 57–113.</ref><ref>Robert P. Hudson, "Eisenhower's Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held on to the Presidency (review)" ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' 72#1 (1998) pp. 161–162 [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/4010 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429000309/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/4010 |date=April 29, 2017 }}.</ref><ref>R.H. Ferrell, ''Ill-Advised: Presidential Health & Public Trust'' (1992), pp. 53–150</ref>

The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and [[Sherman Adams]] assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=272}}</ref> He was treated by [[Paul Dudley White]], a [[Cardiology|cardiologist]] with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress. His physician recommended a second presidential term as essential to his recovery.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=281}}</ref>

As a consequence of his heart attack Eisenhower developed a left ventricular [[aneurysm]], which caused a mild stroke during a cabinet meeting on November 25, 1957, when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to move his right hand or to speak. The president also suffered from [[Crohn's disease]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Butler Criticizes Illness Reports: Says News Has Been Handled in Terms of Propaganda—Hagerty Denies It |first=Richard J. H. |last=Johnston |work=The New York Times |date=June 13, 1956 |page=32A |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/113576174/ |quote=Paul M. Butler, the Democratic National Chairman,&nbsp;... declared that the physicians who operated on and attended the President in his most recent illness 'have done a terrific job of trying to convince the American people that a man who has had a heart attack and then was afflicted with Crohn's disease is a better man physically.' He added: 'Whether the American people will buy that, I don't know.' |access-date=December 22, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=President's Heart Reported Sound; Surgery Is Indicated: Inflamed, Obstructed, Intestine Is Blamed |last=Clark |first=Robert E |work=Atlanta Daily World |date=June 9, 1956 |page=1 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/491087844/ |access-date=December 22, 2016}}</ref> which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Undergoes Surgery on Intestine Block at 2:59 A.M.: Doctors Pronounce It Success : Condition Is Good: Operation Lasts Hour and 53 Minutes–13 Attend Him |first=Anthony |last=Leviero |work=The New York Times |date=June 9, 1956 |page=1 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/113808030/ |quote=President Eisenhower was operated on at 2:59 A.M. today for relief of an intestinal obstruction. At 4:55 A.M., the operation was pronounced a success by the surgeons.&nbsp;... The President's condition was diagnosed as ileitis. This is an inflamation of the ileum—the lowest portion of the small intestine, where it joins the large intestine.&nbsp;... The President first felt ill shortly after midnight yesterday. He had attended a dinner of the White House News Photographers Association Thursday night and had returned to the White House at 11. Mrs. Eisenhower called Maj. Gen. Howard McC. Snyder, the President's personal physician, at 12:45 A.M. yesterday, telling him the President had some discomfort in his stomach. He recommended a slight dose of milk of magnesia. At 1:20 Mrs. Eisenhower called again, saying the President was still complaining of not feeling well. This time she asked Dr. Snyder to come to the White House from his home about a mile away on Connecticut Avenue. He arrived at 2 A.M. and has not left the President's side since. |access-date=December 22, 2016}}</ref> To treat the intestinal block, surgeons bypassed about ten inches of his [[small intestine]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Eisenhower Out Of Danger; Will Be Able To Resume Duties And Seek Reelection: Doctors See Prospect of Full Return to Job in Four to Six Weeks: Operation Performed to Prevent Gangrene of Bowel: Signing of Official Papers Viewed as Likely by Tomorrow or Tuesday | last=Knighton | first=William Jr. |work=The Baltimore Sun |date=June 10, 1956 |page=1 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/541066565/ |access-date=December 22, 2016 }}</ref> His scheduled meeting with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was postponed so he could recover at his farm.<ref>{{cite news |title=Out of Hospital Visit Postponed |work=The New York Times |date=July 1, 1956 |page=E2 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/113842058/ |access-date=December 22, 2016 }}</ref> He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis. Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his diet, but he still drank alcohol. During a visit to England, he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at prime ministerial manor house [[Chequers]] on the next day his physician, General Howard Snyder, recalled that Eisenhower "drank several [[Gin and tonic|gin-and-tonics]], and one or two gins on the rocks&nbsp;... three or four wines with the dinner".<ref>Williams, Charles ''Harold Macmillan'' (2009) p. 345</ref>

Eisenhower's health during the last three years of his second term in office was relatively good. After leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks.<ref name="drzebra">{{cite web|url=http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g34.htm|title=President Dwight Eisenhower: Health & Medical History|publisher=doctorzebra.com|access-date=January 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084840/http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g34.htm|archive-date=January 17, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs.<ref name=post/> On December 12, 1966, his [[gallbladder]] was removed, containing 16 [[gallstone]]s.<ref name="drzebra" /> After Eisenhower's death in 1969, an autopsy revealed an undiagnosed adrenal [[pheochromocytoma]],<ref>Messerli F. H., Loughlin K. R., Messerli A. W., Welch W. R.: The President and the pheochromocytoma. ''Am J Cardiol'' 2007; 99: 1325–1329.</ref> a [[benign]] adrenalin-secreting tumor that may have made him more vulnerable to [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]]. Eisenhower had seven heart attacks from 1955 until his death.<ref name="drzebra" />

=== End of presidency ===
The [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment to the US Constitution]], which set a [[Term limits in the United States|two-term limit]] on the presidency, was ratified in 1951. Eisenhower was the first president constitutionally prevented from serving a third term.

Eisenhower was also the first outgoing president to come under the protection of the [[Former Presidents Act]]. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] security detail.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008|url=https://www.archives.gov/about/laws/former-presidents.html|title=Former Presidents Act|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614024342/http://www.archives.gov/about/laws/former-presidents.html|archive-date=June 14, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[1960 United States presidential election|1960 election]] to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed Nixon over Democrat John F. Kennedy. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy."<ref name="time 2008" /> He actively campaigned for Nixon in the final days, although he may have done Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was, at 70, the oldest president to date, was succeeded by 43-year-old Kennedy, the youngest elected president.<ref name="time 2008" />

It was originally intended for Eisenhower to have a more active role in the campaign as he wanted to respond to attacks Kennedy made on his administration. However, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower expressed concern to Second Lady [[Pat Nixon]] about the strain campaigning would put on his heart, and wanted the president to withdraw, without letting him know of her intervention. Vice President Nixon himself was informed by White House physician Major General Howard Snyder that he could not approve a heavy campaign schedule for the president, whose health problems had been exacerbated by Kennedy's attacks. Nixon then convinced Eisenhower not to go ahead with the expanded campaign schedule and limit himself to the original schedule. Nixon reflected that if Eisenhower had carried out his expanded campaign schedule, he might have had a decisive impact on the outcome of the election, especially in states that Kennedy won with razor-thin margins. Mamie did not tell Dwight why Nixon changed his mind on Dwight's campaigning until years later.<ref>Nixon, Richard, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, 1978, pp. 222–223.</ref>
[[File:MEETING BETWEEN PRESIDENT DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER (DDE) AND PRESIDENT-ELECT KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower sharing a light moment 
with President-elect [[John F. Kennedy]] during their meeting in the Oval Office at White House]]
[[File:Eisenhower farewell address.ogg|right|thumb|Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961]]
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the [[Oval Office]].<ref name=DDEFarewell>{{cite web|access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/eisenhower-farewell.html |title=Dwight D. Eisenhower Farewell Address |date=January 17, 1961 |publisher=USA Presidents |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513222105/http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/eisenhower-farewell.html |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref> In his [[Eisenhower's farewell address|farewell speech]], Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method&nbsp;..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals. He continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex."<ref name=DDEFarewell /> Eisenhower elaborated, "we recognize the imperative need for this development&nbsp;... the potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist&nbsp;... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."<ref name=DDEFarewell />

Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower had resigned his permanent commission as [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]] before assuming the presidency. Upon completion of his presidential term, his commission was reactivated by Congress.<ref name=post/><ref>{{cite web|title= A Chronology from ''The New York Times'', March 1961 |website=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/New+York+Times+Chronology/1961/March.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503063950/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/New+York+Times+Chronology/1961/March.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 3, 2006 |date=March 23, 1961 |access-date=May 30, 2009 |quote=Mr. Kennedy signed into law the act of Congress restoring the five-star rank of General of the Army to his predecessor, Dwight D. Eisenhower. (15:5) }}</ref>

== Post-presidency (1961–1969) ==
[[File:LBJ and Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|[[Lyndon B. Johnson|President Lyndon Johnson]] with Eisenhower aboard [[Air Force One]] in October 1965]]
[[File:Funeral services for Dwight D. Eisenhower, March 1969.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower's funeral service]]
[[File:DDEisenhowerGrave3.jpg|thumb|Graves of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower and Mamie Eisenhower in Abilene, Kansas]]

Following the presidency, Eisenhower moved to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the [[Battle of Gettysburg|battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], {{convert|70|mi}} from his ancestral home in Elizabethville, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-08-08/news/8502010850_1_ambulance-service-steady-growth-post-office |title=Tiny Pennsylvania Town An Escape From Modernity |newspaper=[[Sun-Sentinel]] |date=August 8, 1985 |first=Mary |last=Klaus |access-date=January 4, 2016 |quote=From this farm the family migrated to Kansas in the summer of 1878. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225045723/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-08-08/news/8502010850_1_ambulance-service-steady-growth-post-office |archive-date=February 25, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://civilwar.gratzpa.org/2010/11/eisenhower-family-civil-war-veterans/ |title=Eisenhower Family Civil War Veterans |first=Norman |last=Gasbarro |date=November 29, 2010 |access-date=January 4, 2016 |quote=a stately old home, identified as the ancestral home of President Dwight D. Eisenhower |website=Civil War Blog |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225182344/http://civilwar.gratzpa.org/2010/11/eisenhower-family-civil-war-veterans/ |archive-date=February 25, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> They also maintained a retirement home in [[Palm Desert, California]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Historical Society of Palm Desert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SntPkI-6qUC&pg=PA103 |title=Palm Desert|year=2009|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0738559643|page=103|author2=Rover, Hal |author3=Kousken, Kim |author4= Romer, Brett }}</ref>

After leaving office, Eisenhower did not completely retreat from political life. He flew to San Antonio, where he had been stationed years earlier, to support [[John W. Goode]], the unsuccessful Republican candidate against the Democrat [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] for [[Texas's 20th congressional district]] seat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/utsa/00306/00306-P.html|title=Inventory of the San Antonio Express-News Photograph Collection, 1960-1969 |quote=	Eisenhower, Dwight D.:  visit to San Antonio in behalf of John Goode and Henry Catto, Jr.; downtown S.A. 10/29/1961	 |publisher=University of Texas Library |access-date=May 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602031931/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/utsa/00306/00306-P.html|archive-date=June 2, 2016|url-status=dead }}</ref> He addressed the [[1964 Republican National Convention]], in San Francisco, and appeared with party nominee [[Barry Goldwater]] in a campaign commercial.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=January 20, 2011 |url=http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/ike-at-gettysburg |title=Ike at Gettysburg (Goldwater, 1964) |work=1964: Johnson vs. Goldwater |publisher=Museum of the Moving Image |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019120627/http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/ike-at-gettysburg |archive-date=October 19, 2013 }}</ref> That endorsement came somewhat reluctantly, because Goldwater had in the late 1950s criticized Eisenhower's administration as "a dime-store New Deal".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newsday.com/long-island/politics/dwight-eisenhower-helped-barry-goldwater-s-failed-1964-election-bid-1.11783516 |newspaper=[[Newsday]] |title=When an ex-president helped an 'extreme' Republican candidate |date=May 11, 2016 |access-date=December 9, 2016 |first=William |last=Goldschlag |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220141200/http://www.newsday.com/long-island/politics/dwight-eisenhower-helped-barry-goldwater-s-failed-1964-election-bid-1.11783516 |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> On January 20, 1969, [[First inauguration of Richard Nixon|the day Nixon was inaugurated as President]], Eisenhower issued a statement praising his former vice president and calling it a "day for rejoicing".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1969/01/21/page/5/article/inauguration-is-a-day-for-rejoicing-ike|title=Inauguration Is a Day For Rejoicing: Ike|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=January 21, 1969|access-date=August 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819103946/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1969/01/21/page/5/article/inauguration-is-a-day-for-rejoicing-ike/|archive-date=August 19, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Death ===
At 12:25&nbsp;p.m. on March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died from [[congestive heart failure]] at [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]] in Washington, D.C., at age 78.<ref>{{cite news|title = Eisenhower Dead at 78 as Ailing Heart Fails; Rites Will Start Today|last = Belair|first = Felix Jr.|date = March 29, 1969|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|page= 1}}</ref> The following day, his body was moved to the [[Washington National Cathedral]]'s Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours.<ref name="FinalPost">{{cite web|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower – Final Post|url=https://eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/final_post.html|publisher=Presidential Libraries System, National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=May 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308051349/https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/final_post.html|archive-date=March 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He was then transported to the [[United States Capitol]], where he [[Lying in state#United States|lay in state]] in the [[Capitol Rotunda]] on March 30 and 31.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lying in State or in Honor|url=https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor|publisher=Architect of the Capitol|accessdate=May 19, 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518015734/https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor|archivedate=May 18, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[state funeral]] was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on March 31.<ref name="Funeral">{{cite news |title=World's Leaders Join in Services for Eisenhower |first=Felix Jr. |last=Belair |newspaper=The New York Times |date=April 1, 1969 |page=1}}</ref> The president and First Lady, Richard and Pat Nixon, attended, as did former president Lyndon Johnson. Also among the 2,000 guests that were invited were the UN Secretary-General [[U Thant]] and 191 foreign delegates from 78 countries, including 10 foreign [[heads of state|heads of state and government]]. Guests included President [[Charles de Gaulle]] of France, who was in the United States for the first time since the [[state funeral of John F. Kennedy]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Nixon will Meet with De Gaulle Today|first=Peter|last=Grose|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 31, 1969|page=1|quote=President de Gaulle arrived by plane from Paris, on his first visit to the United States since the funeral of President Kennedy in 1963.}}</ref> Chancellor [[Kurt-Georg Kiesinger]] of West Germany, [[Baudouin of Belgium|King Baudouin]] of Belgium and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran.<ref name="Funeral" />

The service included the singing of [[Jean-Baptiste Faure|Faure's]] "The Palms", and the playing of the hymn "[[Onward, Christian Soldiers]]".<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=For A Modest Man: A Simple Funeral Honors Ike|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=DS19690401.2.4&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1|work=[[The Desert Sun]]|agency=[[United Press International|UPI]]|date=April 1, 1969|volume=42|issue=205|via=[[California Digital Newspaper Collection]], Center for Bibliographical Studies and Research at the University of California Riverside|access-date=May 19, 2019}}</ref>

That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a special [[funeral train]] for its journey from the capital to his hometown of [[Abilene, Kansas]]. First incorporated into President [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln's funeral]] in 1865, a funeral train would not be part of a US state funeral again until [[Death and state funeral of George H. W. Bush|2018]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Weissert|first1=Will|last2=Phillip|first2=David J.|agency=The Associated Press|url=https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2018/12/06/bushes-depart-on-first-presidential-funeral-train-since-1969/|title=Bushes depart on first presidential funeral train since 1969|date=December 6, 2018|website=MilitaryTimes.com|publisher=Sightline Media Group|access-date=May 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809220531/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/pentagon-congress/2018/12/06/bushes-depart-on-first-presidential-funeral-train-since-1969/|archive-date=August 9, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Eisenhower is buried inside the Place of Meditation, the chapel on the grounds of the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home|Eisenhower Presidential Center]] in Abilene. As requested, he was buried in a [[G.I. (military)|Government Issue]] casket, wearing his [[Eisenhower jacket|World War II uniform]], decorated with Army Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Legion of Merit. Buried alongside Eisenhower are his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921, and wife Mamie, who died in 1979.<ref name=FinalPost/>

President Richard Nixon eulogized Eisenhower in 1969, saying:

{{blockquote|Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/1969/Eisenhower-Judy-Garland-Die/|title=1969 Year in Review: Eisenhower, Judy Garland die|publisher=UPI|date=October 25, 2005|access-date=December 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010085652/http://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/1969/Eisenhower-Judy-Garland-Die/|archive-date=October 10, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

== Legacy and memory ==
[[File:Statue of Dwight D Eisenhower (United States capitol).webp|thumb|A [[Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol)|statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower]] by [[Jim Brothers]] stands in [[United States Capitol rotunda|the rotunda]] of the [[United States Capitol]] in Washington, D.C.]]
Eisenhower's reputation declined in the immediate years after he left office. During his presidency, he was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president. This was in stark contrast to his vigorous young successor, John F. Kennedy, who was 26 years his junior. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at [[Little Rock Central High School|Central High School]] in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the [[civil rights movement]] to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the [[1960 U-2 incident]] and the associated international embarrassment,<ref name="'70s 27">{{harvnb|Frum|2000|p=27}}</ref><ref name="us news">{{Cite news|title=Presidential Lies and Deceptions |last=Walsh |first=Kenneth T. |date=June 6, 2008 |work=U.S. News & World Report |url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929194001/http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html |archive-date=September 29, 2008 }}</ref> for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the [[nuclear arms race]] and the [[Space Race]], and for his failure to publicly oppose [[McCarthyism]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Presidents and Civil Liberties from Wilson to Obama |date=2012 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/presidents-and-civil-liberties-from-wilson-to-obama/presidents-and-civil-liberties-from-wilson-to-obama/B0B615B2C365EF2387554EF9E1DB3790 |pages=i–ii |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=Samuel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01660-6 |access-date=February 26, 2023}}</ref> In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend [[George C. Marshall]] from attacks by [[Joseph McCarthy]], though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/34_eisenhower/eisenhower_politics.html |title=Presidential Politics |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606222418/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/34_eisenhower/eisenhower_politics.html |archive-date=June 6, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the access of Eisenhower's private papers, his reputation changed amongst presidential historians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McMahon |first=Robert J. |date=1986 |title=Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=453–473 |doi=10.2307/2151625 |jstor=2151625 |issn=0032-3195}}</ref><ref name="millerlegacy">{{cite web |last1=Pach |first1=Chester J. Jr. |date=October 4, 2016 |title=Dwight D. Eisenhower: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/impact-and-legacy |access-date=February 26, 2023 |website=Miller Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=RABE |first=STEPHEN G. |date=1993 |title=Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24912261 |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=97–115 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1993.tb00160.x |jstor=24912261 |issn=0145-2096}}</ref> Historian [[John Lewis Gaddis]] has summarized a more recent turnaround in evaluations by historians:

{{blockquote|Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet–American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military–industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html "He Made It Look Easy: 'Eisenhower in War and Peace', by Jean Edward Smith"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206184614/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited |date=February 6, 2017 }}{{cbignore}}, ''New York Times Book Review'', April 20, 2012.</ref>}}

[[File:Meeting with President Eisenhower. President Kennedy, President Eisenhower, military aides. Camp David, MD. - NARA - 194198.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy meets with General Eisenhower at [[Camp David]], April 22, 1961, three days after the failed [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]].]]

Although conservatism in politics was strong during the 1950s, and Eisenhower generally espoused conservative sentiments, his administration concerned itself mostly with foreign affairs and pursued a hands-off domestic policy. Eisenhower looked to moderation and cooperation as a means of governance, which he dubbed "The Middle Way".<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal|jstor=1863309|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth|first=Robert|last=Griffith|date=January 1, 1982|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=87|issue=1|pages=87–122|doi=10.2307/1863309}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |title=The President and His Decision |date=March 12, 1956 }}</ref>

Although he sought to slow or contain the [[New Deal]] and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright. In doing so, Eisenhower was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.<ref name="jstor.org" /> Conservative critics of his administration thought that he did not do enough to advance the goals of the right; according to [[Hans Morgenthau]], "Eisenhower's victories were but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party."<ref>Morgenthau, Hans J.: "Goldwater&nbsp;– The Romantic Regression", in ''Commentary'', September 1964.</ref>

Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or "gatekeeper", sometimes described as the president's private secretary, sometimes with no official title.<ref name=medved>{{cite book|last=Medved|first=Michael|title=The Shadow Presidents: The Secret History of the Chief Executives and Their Top Aides|year=1979|publisher=Times Books|isbn=0812908163|url=https://archive.org/details/shadowpresidents00medv}}</ref> Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of [[White House Chief of Staff]]&nbsp;– an idea he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after [[Lyndon Johnson]] has appointed staff to this position.

As president, Eisenhower also initiated the "[[up or out]]" policy that still prevails in the US military. Officers who are passed over for promotion twice are then usually honorably but quickly discharged to make way for younger and more able officers.

On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], placing him in the company of George Marshall, [[Henry H. Arnold|Henry "Hap" Arnold]], and [[Douglas MacArthur]], the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II. Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888, death of [[Philip Sheridan]], and the only five men to hold the rank of [[Five-star rank|five-star general]]. The rank was created by an [[Act of Congress]] on a temporary basis, when [[Act of Congress|Public Law]] [[s:Public Law 78-482|78-482]] was passed on December 14, 1944,<ref name="PL78-482">{{cite web
 | url= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Public_Law_78-482
 | title= Public Law 482
 | access-date= April 29, 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013204129/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Public_Law_78-482
 | archive-date= October 13, 2007
| url-status= live
 }} This law allowed only 75% of pay and allowances to the grade for those on the retired list.</ref> as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was declared permanent on March 23, 1946, by Public Law 333 of the [[79th Congress]], which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-6.htm
 |title=Public Law 333, 79th Congress
 |date=April 11, 2007
|publisher=[[Naval Historical Center]]
 |access-date=October 22, 2007
|url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013212055/http://history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-6.htm
 |archive-date=October 13, 2007
}} The retirement provisions were also applied to the World War II [[Commandant of the United States Marine Corps|Commandant of the Marine Corps]] and the [[Commandant of the Coast Guard]], both of whom held four-star rank.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Law 79-333|url=http://legisworks.org/congress/79/publaw-333.pdf|website=legisworks.org|publisher=Legis Works|access-date=October 19, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121013632/http://legisworks.org/congress/79/publaw-333.pdf|archive-date=November 21, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of [[Field marshal (United Kingdom)|field marshal]] and [[Admiral of the fleet (Royal Navy)|admiral of the fleet]].

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| header_align      = center
| footer            = [[Frank Gasparro]]'s obverse design (left) and reverse design (right) of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation award during Eisenhower's official visit to the State of Hawaii from June 20 to 25, 1960
| image1            = Dwight D. Eisenhower POTUS Appreciation Medal Hawaii Obverse.jpg|thumb|center|200x200
| width1            = 120
| image2            = Dwight D. Eisenhower POTUS Appreciation Medal Hawaii Reverse.jpg|thumb center|200x200
| width2            = 120
}}

Eisenhower founded [[People to People International]] in 1956, believing that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and [[world peace]]. The program includes a [[People to People Student Ambassadors|student ambassador component]], which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Heritage |url=http://www.peopletopeople.com/AboutUs/Pages/OurHeritage.aspx |publisher=People to People International |access-date=September 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301050108/http://www.peopletopeople.com/AboutUs/Pages/OurHeritage.aspx |archive-date=March 1, 2009 }}</ref>

During his second term as president, Eisenhower awarded a series of specially designed US Mint presidential appreciation medals. Eisenhower presented the medal to individuals as an expression of his appreciation.<ref name=Gomez>{{cite book|last=Gomez|first=Darryl|title=Authoritative Numismatic Reference: Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medals 1958–1963 |year=2015 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1511786744}}</ref> The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the [[United States Mint]], through the [[Philadelphia Mint]]. The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960. A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858. Prior to the end of his second term as president, 1,451 medals were turned in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed.<ref name="Gomez" /> The Eisenhower appreciation medals are part of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medal Series.<ref name="Gomez" />

=== Tributes and memorials ===
{{Main|List of memorials to Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
[[File:1974S Eisenhower Obverse.jpg|thumb|The Eisenhower dollar was the official dollar coin from 1971 to 1978.]]
The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the "Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways". It was inspired in part by Eisenhower's experiences in World War II, where he recognized the advantages of the [[autobahn]] system in Germany.<ref name=archivesIHS /> Commemorative signs reading "Eisenhower Interstate System" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent [[General of the Army (United States)|5-star rank]] insignia were introduced in 1993 and now are displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the [[Interstate 290 (Illinois)|Eisenhower Expressway]] (Interstate 290) near Chicago, the [[Eisenhower Tunnel]] on [[Interstate 70]] west of [[Denver]], and [[Interstate 80 in California]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower Highway|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/ddehwy.cfm|website=Federal Highway Administration|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825182935/https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/ddehwy.cfm|archive-date=August 25, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy]] is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's [[National Defense University]] in Washington, DC. Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was known as the Army Industrial College.

Eisenhower was honored on the [[Eisenhower dollar]], minted from 1971 to 1978. His centenary was honored on the [[Eisenhower commemorative dollar]] issued in 1990.

In 1969 four major record companies&nbsp;– [[ABC Records]], [[MGM Records]], [[Buddha Records]] and [[Caedmon Audio]]&nbsp;– released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor.<ref>{{cite news |url={{GBurl|id=ySgEAAAAMBAJ|p=3}} |title=Record Companies Run With Eisenhower Tribute Albums |magazine=Billboard |date=April 12, 1969 |access-date=December 2, 2015}}</ref>

In 1999, the [[United States Congress]] created the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial]] Commission, to create an enduring [[National memorial (United States)|national memorial]] in Washington, D.C. In 2009 the commission chose the architect [[Frank Gehry]] to design the memorial.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Frank Gehry to design Eisenhower Memorial | url=https://www.bizjournals.com/albuquerque/stories/2009/03/30/daily41.html | work=[[American City Business Journals]] | date=April 1, 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404031334/http://www.bizjournals.com/albuquerque/stories/2009/03/30/daily41.html | archive-date=April 4, 2009 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WPmemorial">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/01/AR2009040101880.html
 |title=Architect Gehry Gets Design Gig For Eisenhower Memorial
 |last=Trescott
 |first=Jacqueline
 |date=April 2, 2009
|newspaper=The Washington Post
|access-date=August 26, 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703034223/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/01/AR2009040101880.html
 |archive-date=July 3, 2017
|url-status=live
 }}</ref> The groundbreaking ceremony of the memorial was held on November 3, 2017, and was dedicated on September 17, 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Horan|first=Tim|date=May 8, 2020|title=Eisenhower Memorial in D.C. is complete. Coronavirus delays dedication to September|work=The Wichita Eagle|url=https://www.kansas.com/news/coronavirus/article242601951.html#adnrb=900000|access-date=May 8, 2020}}</ref><ref name=program>{{Cite web  |title=Dedication Of Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial  |url=https://eisenhowermemorial.gov/sites/default/files/public/press/Dedication%20Ceremony%20Program_FINAL_200915_0.pdf  |website=Eisenhower Memorial Commission  |access-date=April 9, 2023  |archive-date=October 22, 2020  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183641/https://eisenhowermemorial.gov/sites/default/files/public/press/Dedication%20Ceremony%20Program_FINAL_200915_0.pdf  |url-status=dead }}</ref> It stands on a {{convert|4|acre|adj=on}} site near the [[National Mall]] on Maryland Avenue, across the street from the [[National Air and Space Museum]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/2010/01/18/daily80.html | title=Gilbane to manage design and construction of Eisenhower Memorial | last=Plumb | first=Tiereny | date=January 22, 2010 | work=[[American City Business Journals]]}}</ref>

In December 1999 he was listed on [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century]]. In 2009 he was named to the [[World Golf Hall of Fame]] in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgatour.com/2009/r/06/26/wghof_eisenhower/index.html |title=President Eisenhower named to World Golf Hall of Fame |publisher=PGA Tour |access-date=May 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629071851/http://www.pgatour.com/2009/r/06/26/wghof_eisenhower/index.html |archive-date=June 29, 2009 }}</ref> In 1973, he was inducted into the [[Hall of Great Westerners]] of the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of Great Westerners |url=https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |website=National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum |access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> On 27 October 2023, Fort Gordon was redesignated [[Fort Eisenhower]].{{efn| name=fortEisenhower27Oct23 |1= Redesignation to Fort Eisenhower was on 27 October 2023.<ref name= redesignationCeremony >[https://www.dvidshub.net/webcast/33049 (27 Oct 2023) Fort Eisenhower redesignation ceremony]</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/plans-are-coming-together-for-fort-gordon-renaming-ceremony/ar-AA18FB63 |title=Plans are coming together for Fort Gordon renaming ceremony |work=MSN |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317004022/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/plans-are-coming-together-for-fort-gordon-renaming-ceremony/ar-AA18FB63 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name= redesignation >{{cite news |first=Herb |last=Scribner |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/03/25/fort-hood-new-name-name-fort-cavazos |date=25 March 2023 |title=6 Army bases named after Confederate leaders get dates for new names |work=Axios |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=18 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418113618/https://www.axios.com/2023/03/25/fort-hood-new-name-name-fort-cavazos |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Honors ==

=== Awards and decorations ===
[[File:Orden-Pobeda-Marshal Vasilevsky.jpg|thumb|The star of the Soviet [[Order of Victory]] awarded to Eisenhower<ref>Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands in an interview with H.G. Meijer, published in "Het Vliegerkruis", Amsterdam 1997, {{ISBN|9067073474}}. p. 92.</ref>]]
[[File:Coat of Arms of Dwight Eisenhower.svg|thumb|The [[coat of arms]] granted to Eisenhower upon his incorporation as a knight of the Danish [[Order of the Elephant]] in 1950.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Arms of Dwight D. Eisenhower |publisher=American Heraldry Society |url=http://www.americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=President.Eisenhower |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202002218/http://www.americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=President.Eisenhower |archive-date=February 2, 2015 }}</ref> The anvil represents the fact that his name is derived from the German for "iron hewer", making these an example of [[canting arms]].|alt=]]

{| class="wikitable"
|-  style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''US military decorations'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/eisenhowers/awards-medals|title=Awards & Medals {{!}} Eisenhower Presidential Library|website=www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov|access-date=April 28, 2020}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=4|type=oak|ribbon=Distinguished Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Army Distinguished Service Medal]] w/ 4 [[oak leaf cluster]]s
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Navy Distinguished Service ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Legion of Merit ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Merit]]
|-  style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''US service medals<ref name=":0" />'''
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Mexican Border Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Mexican Border Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[World War I Victory Medal (United States)|World War I Victory Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[American Defense Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=7|type=service-star|ribbon=European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal]] w/ 7 [[campaign star]]s
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[World War II Victory Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=Army of Occupation ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Army of Occupation Medal]] w/ "Germany" clasp
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=National Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[National Defense Service Medal]] w/ 1 [[service star]]
|-  style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''International and foreign awards'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/awards_medals.html|title=USA and Foreign Decorations of Dwight D. Eisenhower|publisher=[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]|access-date=June 10, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118062616/https://eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/awards_medals.html|archive-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=ARG Order of the Liberator San Martin - Grand Cross BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Liberator San Martin]], Grand Cross (Argentina)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=AUT Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria - 2nd Class BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria|Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash]] (Austria)<ref>{{cite web | title=Questions to the Chancellor | year=2012 | publisher=Austrian Parliament | url=http://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXIV/AB/AB_10542/imfname_251156.pdf | page=194 | access-date=September 30, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022192702/http://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXIV/AB/AB_10542/imfname_251156.pdf | archive-date=October 22, 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BEL - Order of Leopold - Grand Cordon bar.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]], Grand Cordon (Belgium) – 1945
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Croix de Guerre 1940-1945 with palm (Belgium) - ribbon bar.png|width=60}}
|{{Lang|fr|[[War Cross (Belgium)|Croix de guerre]]|italic=no}} w/ palm (Belgium)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Southern Cross]], Grand Cross (Brazil)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA Ordem do Merito Militar Gra-cruz.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Military Merit (Brazil)]], Grand Cross
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA Ordem do Mérito Aeronáutico Grã-Cruz.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil)|Order of Aeronautical Merit]], Grand Cross (Brazil)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA War Medal.png|width=60}}
|War Medal (Brazil)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA Campaign Medal.png|width=60}}
|Campaign Medal (Brazil)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=CHL Order of Merit of Chile - Grand Cross BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Merit (Chile)|Order of Merit]], Grand Cross (Chile)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Cloud and Banner 1st.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Cloud and Banner]], with Special Grand Cordon, (China)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=TCH CS Vojensky Rad Bileho Lva 1st %281945%29 BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Military Order of the White Lion]], Grand Cross (Czechoslovakia)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Czechoslovak War Cross 1939–1945|War Cross 1939–1945]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Elephant Ribbon bar.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Elephant]], Knight (Denmark) – December 15, 1945
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Abdon Calderon First Class.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Abdon Calderón]], First Class (Ecuador)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=EGY Order of Ismail.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Ismail]], Grand Cordon (Egypt)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=ETH Order of Solomon BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Solomon]], Knight Grand Cross with Cordon ([[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of The Queen of Sheba (Ethiopia) ribbon.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Queen of Sheba]], Member ([[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Honour]], Grand Cross (France) – 1943
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordre de la Liberation 2nd ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Liberation]], Companion (France)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Medaille militaire ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Médaille militaire|Military Medal]] (France)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Allies|author=Eisenhower, John S. D.}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Croix de guerre 1939–1945 stripe bronsepalme.svg|width=60}}
|[[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|Croix de guerre]] w/ palm (France)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=GRE Order of George I - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Royal Order of George I]], Knight Grand Cross with Swords ([[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=GRE Order Redeemer 1Class.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Redeemer]], Knight Grand Cross ([[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Guatemalan Armed Forces Cross.jpg|width=60}}
|[[Cross of Military Merit]], First Class (Guatemala)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Orden Nacional de Honor y Mérito, Gran Cruz.svg|width=60}}
|[[National Order of Honour and Merit]], Grand Cross with Gold Badge (Haiti)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=OESSG Cavaliere di Gran Croce BAR.jpg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]], Knight Grand Cross ([[Holy See]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Cavaliere di gran Croce BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Military Order of Italy]], Knight Grand Cross (Italy)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], Collar (Japan)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordre de la couronne de Chene GC ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Oak Crown]], Grand Cross (Luxembourg)
|-
|[[File:LUX Médaille Militaire BAR.svg|60px]]
|[[Military Medal (Luxembourg)]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=OPMM-gcX.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order pro merito Melitensi]], KGC ([[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=MEX Order of the Aztec Eagle 1Class BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Aztec Eagle]], Collar (Mexico) – 1945
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=MEX Condecoracion al Merito Militar Primera Clase.png|width=60}}
|[[Military decorations of Mexico#Medal of Military Merit|Medal of Military Merit]] (Mexico)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Noribbon.svg|width=60}}
|Medal of Civic Merit (Mexico)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Noribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Muhammad]], (Morocco)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordre de l'Ouissam Alaouite GC ribbon (Maroc).svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Ouissam Alaouite]], Grand Cross (Morocco)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=NLD Order of the Dutch Lion - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Netherlands Lion]], Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands) – October 6, 1945
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=St Olavs Orden storkors stripe.svg|width=60}}
|[[Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav]], Grand Cross (Norway)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ord.Nishan-i-Pakistan.ribbon.gif|width=60}}
|[[Nishan-e-Pakistan|Order of Nishan-e-Pakistan]], First Class (Pakistan) – December 7, 1957
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PAN Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero - Grand Officer BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero]], Grand Officer (Panama)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PAN Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], Grand Cross (Panama)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Order of Sikatuna - Grand Collar BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Sikatuna]], Grand Collar (Philippines)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Legion of Honor - Chief Commander BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Honor (Philippines)]], Chief Commander (Philippines)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Distinguished Service Star BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Distinguished Service Star]], (Philippines)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Polonia Restituta Wielki BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Polonia Restituta]], Grand Cross (Poland)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Virtuti Militari Wielki BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Virtuti Militari]], First Class (Poland)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Order Krzyża Grunwaldu 1 Klasy BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Cross of Grunwald]], First Class (Poland)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand) ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], Knight (Thailand)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordre du Nichan Iftikhar GC ribbon (Tunisia).svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Glory (Tunisia)|Order of Glory]], Grand Cordon (Tunisia)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Bath (ribbon).svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Bath]], Knight Grand Cross (United Kingdom)
* Military Division 1945
* Civil Division 1957
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Galó de l'Orde del Mèrit (UK).svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Merit]] (United Kingdom)
* Member Military Division June 12, 1945
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ribbon - Africa Star & 8.png|width=60}}
|[[Africa Star]], with 8th Army clasp (United Kingdom)
|-
|[[File:Ribbon - War Medal.png|60px]]
|[[War Medal 1939–1945]] (United Kingdom)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=OrderVictoryRibbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Victory]], Star ([[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Suvorov 106x30.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Suvorov]], First Class ([[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross rib.png|width=60}}
|The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross ([[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]])
|}

===Freedom of the City===
Eisenhower received the [[Freedom of the City|Freedom]] honor from several locations, including:
* {{flagicon|England}} [[Freedom of the City of London]] on June 12, 1945<ref>{{cite news |title=Eisenhower to get honor | work=The New York Times | date=June 10, 1945 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1945/06/10/archives/eisenhower-to-get-honor-city-of-london-to-give-limited-freedom-and.html |url-access=limited |access-date=August 26, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQHM9oqufv0 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211027/wQHM9oqufv0| archive-date=October 27, 2021|year=1945 |title=London Welcomes Her Newest Citizen |time=1:18 |type=Newsreel |via=Associated Press and YouTube |publisher=[[Movietone News|British Movietone News]] |access-date=August 26, 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Northern Ireland}} [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Belfast]] on August 24, 1945<ref name=":1">{{cite news |url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/imported/eisenhower-in-ulster-28370627.html |title=Eisenhower in Ulster |date=July 5, 2008 |newspaper=Belfast Telegraph |access-date=August 26, 2020 }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Scotland}} Freedom of the City of [[Edinburgh]] in 1946<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/eisenhowers-scottish-diary-aka-eisenhowers/query/Eisenhowers+Scottish+Diary |title=Eisenhower's Scottish Diary |time=0:13 |type=Newsreel |publisher=[[Pathé News|British Pathé]] |access-date=August 26, 2020 }}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Scotland}} Freedom of the Burgh of [[Maybole]] in October 1946<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.maybole.org/news/2014/April/president_eisenhower_in_carrick.htm |title=President Eisenhower in Carrick |website=maybole.org |access-date=August 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025053932/https://www.maybole.org/news/2014/April/president_eisenhower_in_carrick.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Honorary degrees===
Eisenhower received many honorary degrees from universities and colleges around the world. These included:

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
! style="width:20%;"| Location
! style="width:20%;"| Date
! style="width:40%;"| School
! style="width:20%;"| Degree
! style="width:20%;"| Gave commencement address
|-
| {{Flagu|Northern Ireland}} || '''August 24, 1945''' || [[Queen's University Belfast]] || [[Doctor of Laws]] (LL.D)<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qub.ac.uk/about/Leadership-and-structure/Registrars-Office/FileStore/Filetoupload,837203,en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804121308/https://www.qub.ac.uk/about/Leadership-and-structure/Registrars-Office/FileStore/Filetoupload,837203,en.pdf |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |url-status=live |title=Honorary Degrees 1871–2018 |website=[[Queen's University Belfast]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|England}} || '''1945''' || [[University of Oxford]] || [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (DCL)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/oxford-degrees-for-war-leaders |title=Oxford Degrees for War Leaders |date=1945 |website=[[British Pathé]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Massachusetts}} || '''1946''' || [[Harvard University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.harvard.edu/on-campus/commencement/honorary-degrees |title=Honorary Degrees |date= |website=[[Harvard University]] |access-date=August 26, 2020 |archive-date=November 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104152828/https://www.harvard.edu/on-campus/commencement/honorary-degrees |url-status=dead }}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Pennsylvania}} || '''1946''' || [[Gettysburg College]] || Doctorate<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gettysburg.edu/commencement/traditions/honorary-degree-recipients |title=Honorary degree recipients |website=[[Gettysburg College]] |access-date=August 26, 2020 |archive-date=September 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909202548/https://www.gettysburg.edu/commencement/traditions/honorary-degree-recipients |url-status=dead }}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Ontario}} || '''1946''' || [[University of Toronto]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/sites/default/files/2020-01/CHD%20recipients%20-%20Chrono%20-%201850-2019.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401055346/https://governingcouncil.utoronto.ca/sites/default/files/2020-01/CHD%20recipients%20-%20Chrono%20-%201850-2019.pdf |archive-date=April 1, 2020 |url-status=live |title=Honorary Degree Recipients, 1850–2021 |website=[[University of Toronto]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Pennsylvania}} || '''1947''' || [[University of Pennsylvania]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://secretary.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/Chronological-Penn-HDR-Listing_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629122212/https://secretary.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/Chronological-Penn-HDR-Listing_0.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2019 |url-status=live |title=Chronological Listing of Honorary Degree Recipients |website=[[University of Pennsylvania]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Connecticut}} || '''1948''' || [[Yale University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://secretary.yale.edu/programs-services/honorary-degrees/since-1702?field_degrees_value=All&field_year_value=All&keys=Eisenhower |title=Honorary Degrees Since 1702 |website=Office of the Secretary and Vice President for University Life, [[Yale University]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|New York|1909}} || '''1950''' || [[Hofstra University]] || Doctorate<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hofstra.edu/about/about_hondegrees.html |title=About: Honorary Degrees |website=[[Hofstra University]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|New Hampshire}} || '''June 14, 1953''' || [[Dartmouth College]] || Doctorate || Yes<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://250.dartmouth.edu/highlights/president-eisenhowers-commencement-address |title=President Eisenhower's Commencement Address |date=November 28, 2018 |website=[[Dartmouth College]]}}</ref> 
|-
| {{Flagu|Washington, D.C.}} || '''November 19, 1953''' || [[Catholic University of America]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://commencement.catholic.edu/_media/docs/master-listing-of-all-honorary-degrees.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122092636/https://commencement.catholic.edu/_media/docs/master-listing-of-all-honorary-degrees.pdf |archive-date=November 22, 2020 |url-status=live |title=Honorary Degrees Conferred by The Catholic University of America |website=[[Catholic University of America]]}}</ref> || 
|-
| {{Flagu|Virginia}} || '''1953''' || [[College of William and Mary]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||  
|-
| {{Flagu|Illinois}} || '''1954''' || [[Northwestern University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.northwestern.edu/provost/committees/administrative/honorary-degrees/honorary-degree-recipients.html |title=Honorary Degree Recipients |website=Office of the Provost, [[Northwestern University]]}}</ref> || 
|-
| {{Flagu|Maryland}} || '''June 7, 1954''' || [[Washington College]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite speech |last=Eisenhower |first=Dwight D. |author-link=Dwight D. Eisenhower |title=Remarks at Washington College on Receiving an Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree |date=June 7, 1954 |location=Washington College, Maryland |publisher=[[Washington College]] |url=https://staging.washcoll.edu/centers/starr/revcollege/presidential/deisenhower.html |access-date=January 9, 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=October 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020172825/https://staging.washcoll.edu/centers/starr/revcollege/presidential/deisenhower.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> || Yes
|-
| {{Flagu|Maryland}} || '''1958''' || [[Johns Hopkins University]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://commencement.jhu.edu/our-history/honorary-degrees-awarded/ |title=Honorary Degrees Awarded |website=[[Johns Hopkins University]]}}</ref> || 
|-
| {{Flagu|India}} || '''December 17, 1959''' || [[University of Delhi]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/india-likes-ike |title=India Likes Ike |date=1959 |website=[[British Pathé]]}}</ref> || 
|-
| {{Flagu|Indiana}} || '''June 5, 1960''' || [[University of Notre Dame]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://commencement.nd.edu/assets/385863/honorary_degrees_archive_by_date.pdf |title=Honorary Degree Recipients, 1844–2019 |date=November 2019 |website=[[University of Notre Dame]] |access-date=August 26, 2020 |archive-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022055700/https://commencement.nd.edu/assets/385863/honorary_degrees_archive_by_date.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|New York|1909}} || '''June 20, 1964''' || [[Bard College]] || Doctor of Laws (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/06/21/archives/eisenhower-given-honorary-degree-at-bard-college.html |title=Eisenhower Given Honorary Degree at Bard College |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=June 21, 1964}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Iowa}} || '''1965''' || [[Grinnell College]] || [[Doctor of Laws]] (LL.D)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.grinnell.edu/about/offices-services/conference-operations/commencement/archives/honorary-degrees |title=Past Honorary Degrees |website=[[Grinnell College]]}}</ref> ||
|-
| {{Flagu|Ohio}} || '''October 5, 1965''' || [[Ohio University]] || [[Doctor of Humane Letters]] (DHL)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://media.library.ohio.edu/digital/collection/archives/id/47827/ |title=U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower with commemorative plaque at Ohio University Memorial Auditorium |date=October 5, 1965 |website=[[Ohio University]] Libraries}}</ref> || Yes
|-
|}

== Promotions ==
{|class="wikitable" style="background:white"
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|No insignia
|[[Cadet#United States|Cadet]], United States Military Academy: June 14, 1911
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|No pin insignia in 1915
|[[US Second Lieutenant|Second Lieutenant]], [[Regular Army (United States)|Regular Army]]: June 12, 1915
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O2 insignia.svg|13px]]
|[[US First Lieutenant|First Lieutenant]], Regular Army: July 1, 1916
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O3 insignia.svg|33px]]
|[[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]], Regular Army: May 15, 1917
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O4 insignia.svg|40px]]
|[[Major (United States)|Major]], [[National Army (USA)|National Army]]: June 17, 1918
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O5 insignia.svg|40px]]
|[[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]], National Army: October 20, 1918
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O3 insignia.svg|33px]]
|[[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]], Regular Army: June 30, 1920<br />(Reverted to permanent rank.)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O4 insignia.svg|40px]]
|[[Major (United States)|Major]], Regular Army: July 2, 1920
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O3 insignia.svg|33px]]
|[[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]], Regular Army: November 4, 1922<br />(Discharged as major and appointed as captain due to reduction of Army.)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O4 insignia.svg|40px]]
|[[Major (United States)|Major]], Regular Army: August 26, 1924
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O5 insignia.svg|40px]]
|[[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]], Regular Army: July 1, 1936
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O6 insignia.svg|60px]]
|[[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]], [[Army of the United States]]: March 6, 1941
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|33px]]
|[[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]], Army of the United States: September 29, 1941<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O8 insignia.svg|66px]]
|[[Major general (United States)|Major General]], Army of the United States: March 27, 1942<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O9 insignia.svg|99px]]
|[[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]], Army of the United States: July 7, 1942<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O10 insignia.svg|132px]]
|[[General (United States)|General]], Army of the United States: February 11, 1943<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|33px]]
|[[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]], Regular Army: August 30, 1943
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O8 insignia.svg|66px]]
|[[Major general (United States)|Major General]], Regular Army: August 30, 1943
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O11 insignia.svg|100px]]
|[[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], Army of the United States: December 20, 1944
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:US-O11 insignia.svg|100px]]
|[[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], Regular Army: April 11, 1946
|}

== See also ==
* "[[And I don't care what it is]]", phrase on religion by Eisenhower, 1952 
* [[Atoms for Peace]], speech to the UN General Assembly, 1953
* [[Committee on Scientists and Engineers]]
* [[Eisenhower baseball controversy]]
* [[Eisenhower method]] for time management
* [[Eisenhower National Historic Site]]
* [[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]
* ''[[Ike: Countdown to D-Day]]'', American television film, 2004
* [[Kay Summersby]], chauffeur and secretary
* [[People to People Student Ambassador Program]]

'''General''':
* [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States]]
* [[History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|25em}}

=== Print sources ===
{{Main|Bibliography of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

==== General biographies ====
* {{Cite book|first=Stephen|last=Ambrose|title=Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect (1893–1952) |volume=I  |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1983 |author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose }}
* {{Cite book|first=Stephen|last=Ambrose|title=Eisenhower: The President (1952–1969) |volume=II|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1984 }}
* {{Cite book|first=Peter G.|last=Boyle|title=Eisenhower|publisher=Pearson/Longman|year=2005|isbn=0582287200}}
* {{Cite book|first=Carlo|last=D'Este|author-link=Carlo D'Este|title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life|year=2002|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0805056866|url=https://archive.org/details/eisenhowersoldie00dest}}
* Krieg, Joann P. ed. (1987). ''Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman''. 24 essays by scholars. {{ISBN|0313259550}}
* {{Cite book|first=Jim|last=Newton|title=Eisenhower: The White House Years|year=2011|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-52353-0|url=https://archive.org/details/eisenhowerwhiteh00newt}}, popular history.
* {{Cite book|first=Herbert S.|last=Parmet|title=Eisenhower and the American Crusades|year=1972|oclc=482017}}
* {{Cite book|first=Jean Edward|last=Smith|title=Eisenhower in War and Peace|publisher=Random House|year=2012|isbn=978-1400066933}}
* {{Cite book|first=Tom|last=Wicker|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower|publisher=Times Books|year=2002|isbn=0805069070|url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes00tref}}, popular history

==== Military career ====
* {{cite book |url={{GBurl|id=F9zBvoVavjQC}} |title = The Supreme Commander|isbn = 9780307946638|last1 = Ambrose|first1 = Stephen E.|date = January 17, 2012| publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing }}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/victorseisenhowe00step |url-access=registration |publisher=Simon & Schuster |title=The Victors: Eisenhower and His Boys the Men of World War II |isbn=9780684864549 |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |date=July 15, 1999 }}
* Eisenhower, David (1986). ''Eisenhower at War 1943–1945'', Random House. {{ISBN|0394412370}}. A detailed study by his grandson.
* [[John Eisenhower|Eisenhower, John S. D.]] (2003). ''General Ike'', Free Press. {{ISBN|0743244745}}, by his son.
* Hatch, Alden. ''General Eisenhower'' (1944) [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.523343 online], early popular biography.
* {{cite book|last=Hobbs|first=Joseph Patrick|title=Dear General: Eisenhower's Wartime Letters to Marshall |url={{GBurl|id=3O5-bYg1g28C}} |date=1999|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=0801862191}}
* Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", ''The Journal of Military History'' 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
* {{Cite book|last=Jordan|first=Jonathan W.|title=Brothers Rivals Victors: Eisenhower, Patton, Bradley, and the Partnership that Drove the Allied Conquest in Europe|publisher=NAL/Caliber|date=2011|isbn=978-0451232120|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/brothersrivalsvi0000jord}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jordan|first=Jonathan W. |title=American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II|publisher = NAL/Caliber|date=2015|isbn = 978-0451414571 |url={{GBurl|id=qeSoBAAAQBAJ}} }}
* {{Cite book|last=Pogue |first=Forrest C.|author-link=Forrest Pogue|title= The Supreme Command|publisher = [[Office of the Chief of Military History]], Dept. of the Army|date=1954|oclc= 1247005}}
*{{Cite book|last= Weigley|first=Russell|author-link=Russell Weigley|title= Eisenhower's Lieutenants: the Campaign of France and Germany, 1944–1945|publisher = Indiana University Press |year=1981 |url={{GBurl|id=W12mDwAAQBAJ}} |isbn=0253133335}}
*{{cite book|last=Sixsmith|first=Major General E. K. G.|author-link=Eric Sixsmith|title=Eisenhower as Military Commander|publisher=[[Batsford Books|B. C. T. Batsford Limited]]|year=1973|isbn=978-0713412123}}

==== Civilian career ====
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wagingpeacehowei00robe |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |title=Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy |isbn=9780199879083 |last1=Bowie |first1=Robert R. |author1-link=Robert R. Bowie |last2=Immerman |first2=Richard H. |author2-link=Richard H. Immerman |date=February 12, 1998 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chernus |first=Ira |author-link=Ira Chernus |title=Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Insecurity| year=2008 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0804758079 }}
* {{cite book | author-first=Blanche Wiesen | author-last=Cook | title=The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy | publisher=Doubleday | year=1981 }}
* Damms, Richard V. (2002). ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961''
* David Paul T., ed. (1954). ''Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952''. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press. {{OCLC|519846}}
* Divine, Robert A. (1981). ''Eisenhower and the Cold War''.
* Gellman, Irwin F. (2015). ''The President and the Apprentice: Eisenhower and Nixon, 1952–1961.'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0300181050}}
* [[Fred Greenstein|Greenstein, Fred I.]] (1991). ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader''. Basic Books. {{ISBN|0465029485}} 
* Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption", ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997.
* Harris, Seymour E. (1962). ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy''. {{OCLC|174566}}
* {{cite book | author-first= Travis Beal | author-last=Jacobs | chapter=Eisenhower, the American Assembly, and the 1952 Elections | editor-last= Warshaw | editor-first=Shirley Anne | title=Reexamining the Eisenhower presidency | publisher= Greenwood Press  | year= 1993 | isbn=0313287929 | pages=17–32 }}
* {{cite book | author-first=Travis Beal | author-last=Jacobs | title=Eisenhower at Columbia | publisher=Transaction Publishers | year=2001 | isbn=0-7658-0036-5 }}
* Mason, Robert. "War Hero in the White House: Dwight Eisenhower and the Politics of Peace, Prosperity, and Party." in ''Profiles in Power'' (Brill, 2020) pp.&nbsp;112–128.
* Medhurst, Martin J. (1993). ''Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator.'' Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0313261407}} 
* Mayer, Michael S. (2009). ''The Eisenhower Years'' Facts on File. {{ISBN|0816053871}}
* Newton, Jim. (2011) ''Eisenhower: The White House Years'' {{ISBN|978-0385523530}} 
* Pach, Chester J., and Richardson, Elmo (1991). ''Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower''. University Press of Kansas. {{ISBN|0700604367}} 
* {{cite book |last=Pickett |first=William B. |author-link=William B. Pickett |title=Eisenhower Decides to Run: Presidential Politics and Cold War Strategy |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |year=2000 |isbn=1-56-663787-2 |title-link=Eisenhower Decides To Run }}
* {{cite book |last=Pickett |first=William B. |author-link=William B. Pickett |title= Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power|publisher=Harlan Davidson |year=1995 |isbn=0-88-295918-2 |title-link=Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power }}
* Watry, David M. (2014). ''Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill and Eden in the Cold War''. Louisiana State University Press.

==== General history ====
* {{cite book | author-first=McGeorge | author-last=Bundy | title=Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years | publisher=Random House  | date=1988 | isbn=0-394-52278-8 }}
* {{cite book| title=How We Got Here: The 70s The Decade That Brought You Modern Life – For Better Or Worse| url=https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum| url-access=registration| last=Frum| first=David| author-link=David Frum| year=2000| publisher=Basic Books| isbn=0-465-04196-5}}
* {{cite news |last1=Grant |first1=Rebecca |title=Deep Strife |url=https://www.airandspaceforces.com/article/0601airland/ |work=Air & Space Forces Magazine |date=June 1, 2001}}
* {{cite book | author-link=David Owen (author)|author-last=Owen | author-first=David | year=1999 | title=The Making of the Masters: Clifford Roberts, Augusta National, and Golf's Most Prestigious Tournament | publisher= Simon and Schuster | isbn=0684857294 }}
* {{cite book | author1-first=Ken | author1-last=Young | author2-first=Warner R. | author2-last=Schilling | title=Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb | publisher=Cornell University Press | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-5017-4516-4 }}

==== Primary sources ====
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (1990). ''The Churchill–Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955''. University of North Carolina Press.
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (2005). ''The Eden–Eisenhower correspondence, 1955–1957''. University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN|0807829358}}
* Butcher, Harry C. (1946). ''My Three Years With Eisenhower The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR'', candid memoir by a top aide. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284625 online]
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1948). ''[[Crusade in Europe]]'', his war memoirs.
* {{Cite book|first=Dwight D.|last=Eisenhower|title=Mandate for Change, 1953–1956|year=1963}}
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965). ''The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961'', Doubleday and Co.
* ''Eisenhower Papers'' 21-volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
* Summersby, Kay (1948). ''Eisenhower Was My Boss'', Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |b=no |n=no |s=Author:Dwight D. Eisenhower |v=no}}
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<!--===============================================================================-->
* [https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/dwight-d-eisenhower/ White House biography]
* [https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/ Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum]
* [http://www.nps.gov/eise/index.htm Eisenhower National Historic Site]
* [http://eisenhowerfoundation.net/ Eisenhower Foundation]
* [https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/eisenhowers/speeches Major speeches of Dwight Eisenhower]
* {{New York Times topic|new_id=person/dwight-david-eisenhower|name=Dwight David Eisenhower}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/eisenhower/index.html Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower Extensive essays on Dwight Eisenhower] and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151630-1/life-portrait-dwight-d-eisenhower "Life Portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', October 25, 1999
* {{Gutenberg author | id=1665| name=Dwight David Eisenhower}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Eisenhower}}
* {{C-SPAN|3465}}

{{Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
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{{s-mil}}
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