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[[File:Map Macedonia 336 BC-en.svg|thumb|400px|The [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedonia]] (in dark orange) in c. 336 BC, at the end of the reign of [[Philip II of Macedon]]; other territories include Macedonian [[Dependent territory|dependent states]] (light orange), the [[Molossians]] of [[Epirus]] (light red), [[Thessaly]] ([[desert sand (color)|desert sand color]]), the allied [[League of Corinth]] (yellow), [[neutral state]]s of [[Sparta]] and [[Crete]], and the western territories of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in [[Anatolia]] (violet purple).]]
{{History of Greece}}
The [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom of Macedonia]] was an [[Classical Antiquity|ancient state]] in what is now the [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonian region]] of [[northern Greece]], founded in the mid-7th century BC during the period of [[Archaic Greece]] and lasting until the mid-2nd century BC. Led first by the [[Argead dynasty]] of kings, Macedonia became a [[vassal state]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] of [[ancient Persia]] during the reigns of [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] ({{reign|547|498 BC}}) and his son [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454 BC}}). The period of [[Achaemenid Macedonia]] came to an end in roughly 479 BC with the [[Battle of Plataea|ultimate Greek victory]] against the [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] led by [[Xerxes I]] and the withdrawal of Persian forces from the European mainland.

During the age of [[Classical Greece]], [[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] ({{reign|454|413 BC}}) became directly involved in the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431–404 BC) between [[Classical Athens]] and [[Sparta]], shifting his alliance from one city-state to another while attempting to retain Macedonian control over the [[Chalcidice]] peninsula. His reign was also marked by conflict and temporary alliances with the [[Thrace|Thracian]] ruler [[Sitalces]] of the [[Odrysian Kingdom]]. He eventually made peace with Athens, thus forming an alliance between the two that carried over into the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] ({{reign|413|399 BC}}). His reign brought peace, stability, and financial security to the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian realm]], yet his little-understood assassination (perhaps by a [[royal page]]) left the kingdom in peril and conflict. The turbulent reign of [[Amyntas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|393|370 BC}}) witnessed devastating invasions by both the [[Illyria]]n ruler [[Bardylis]] of the [[Dardani]] and the Chalcidian city-state of [[Olynthos]], both of which were defeated with the aid of foreign powers, the city-states of [[Thessaly]] and Sparta, respectively. [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] ({{reign|370|368 BC}}) invaded Thessaly but failed to hold Larissa, which was captured by [[Pelopidas]] of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], who made peace with Macedonia on condition that they surrender noble hostages, including the future king [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336 BC}}).

Philip II came to power when his older brother [[Perdiccas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|368|359 BC}}) was defeated and killed in battle by the forces of Bardylis. With the use of skillful diplomacy, Philip II was able to make peace with the [[Illyrians]], [[Thracians]], [[Paeonians]], and Athenians who threatened his borders. This allowed him time to dramatically reform the [[Ancient Macedonian army]], establishing the [[Macedonian phalanx]] that would prove crucial to his kingdom's success in subduing Greece, with the exception of Sparta. He gradually enhanced his political power by forming [[Marriage of state|marriage alliances]] with foreign powers, destroying the [[Chalcidian League]] in the [[Olynthian War]] (349–348 BC), and becoming an elected member of the [[Thessalian League|Thessalian]] and [[Amphictyonic League]]s for his role in defeating [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]] in the [[Third Sacred War]] (356–346 BC). After the Macedonian victory over a coalition led by Athens and Thebes at the 338 BC [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]], Philip established the [[League of Corinth]] and was elected as its [[hegemon]] in anticipation of commanding a united Greek invasion of the Achaemenid Empire under [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] hegemony.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gabriel|first1=Richard A.|title=Philip II of Macedonia: Greater Than Alexander|date=2010|publisher=Potomac Books|isbn=978-1597975193|page=232|quote=That sense of being one people allowed each Greek state and its citizens to contribute their values, experiences, traditions, resources, and talents to a new national identity and psyche. It was not until Philip's reign that a common sentiment of what it meant to be a Hellene reached all Greeks. Alexander took this culture of Hellenism with him to Asia, but it was Philip, as leader of the Greeks, who created it and in doing so made the Hellenistic Age possible.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kinzl|first1=Konrad H|title=A Companion to the Classical Greek World|date=2010|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1444334128|page=553|quote=He [Philip] also recognized the power of pan-hellenic sentiment when arranging Greek affairs after his victory at Chaironeia: a pan-hellenic expedition against Persia ostensibly was one of the main goals of the League of Corinth.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Burger|first1=Michael|title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment|date=2008|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1551114323|page=76|quote=In the end, the Greeks would fall under the rule of a single man, who would unify Greece: Philip II, king of Macedon (360-336 BC). His son, Alexander the Great, would lead the Greeks on a conquest of the ancient Near East vastly expanding the Greek world.}}</ref> However, when Philip II was assassinated by [[Pausanias of Orestis|one of his bodyguards]], he was succeeded by his son Alexander III, better known as [[Alexander the Great]] ({{reign|336|323 BC}}), who invaded [[Achaemenid Egypt]] and [[Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia|Asia]] and toppled the rule of [[Darius III]], who was forced to flee into [[Bactria]] (in what is now [[Afghanistan]]) where he was killed by one of his kinsmen, [[Bessus]]. This pretender to the throne was eventually executed by Alexander, yet the latter eventually succumbed to an unknown illness at the age of 32, whose death led to the [[Partition of Babylon]] by his former generals, the ''[[diadochi]]'', chief among them being [[Antipater]], regent of [[Alexander IV of Macedon]] ({{reign|323|309 BC}}). This event ushered in the [[Hellenistic period]] in [[West Asia]] and the [[Mediterranean world]], leading to the formation of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]], [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]], and [[Attalid]] successor kingdoms in the former territories of Alexander's empire.

Macedonia continued its role as the dominant state of [[Hellenistic Greece]], yet its authority became diminished due to civil wars between the [[Antipatrid dynasty|Antipatrid]] and nascent [[Antigonid dynasty]]. After surviving crippling invasions by [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Lysimachus]], [[Seleucus I Nicator]], and [[Gallic invasion of Greece|the Celtic Galatians]], Macedonia under the leadership of [[Antigonus II of Macedon]] ({{reign|277|274 BC; 272–239 BC}}) was able to subdue Athens and defend against the naval onslaught of Ptolemaic Egypt in the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261 BC). However, the rebellion of [[Aratus of Sicyon]] in 251 BC led to the formation of the [[Achaean League]], which proved to be a perennial problem for the ambitions of the Macedonian kings in [[mainland Greece]]. Macedonian power saw a resurgence under [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221 BC}}), who [[Battle of Sellasia|defeated the Spartans]] under [[Cleomenes III]] in the [[Cleomenean War]] (229–222 BC). Although [[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179 BC}}) managed to defeat the [[Aetolian League]] in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]], his attempts to project Macedonian power into the [[Adriatic Sea]] and formation of a [[Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty]] with [[Hannibal]] alarmed the [[Roman Republic]], which convinced a coalition of Greek city-states to attack Macedonia while [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] focused on [[Second Punic War|defeating Hannibal]] in [[History of Italy|Italy]]. Rome was ultimately victorious in the [[First Macedonian War|First]] (214–205 BC) and [[Second Macedonian War]] (200–197 BC) against Philip V, who was also defeated in the [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)]] by a coalition led by [[Ancient Rhodes|Rhodes]]. Macedonia was forced to relinquish its holdings in Greece outside of Macedonia proper, while the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC) succeeded in [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|toppling the monarchy]] altogether, after which Rome placed [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168 BC}}) under house arrest and established four [[client state]] republics in Macedonia. In an attempt to dissuade rebellion in Macedonia, Rome imposed stringent constitutions in these states that limited their economic growth and interactivity. However, [[Andriscus]], a pretender to the throne claiming descent from the Antigonids, briefly revived the Macedonian monarchy during the [[Fourth Macedonian War]] (150–148 BC). His forces were crushed at the [[Battle of Pydna (148 BC)|second Battle of Pydna]] by the Roman general [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus]], leading to the establishment of the [[Roman province of Macedonia]] and the initial period of [[Roman Greece]].

==Early history and legend==
{{main|Achaemenid Macedonia|Argead dynasty}}
{{further|List of ancient Macedonians#Kings}}
[[File:Vergina2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The entrance to one of the royal tombs at [[Vergina]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
The [[Greek historiography|Greek historians]] [[Herodotus]] and [[Thucydides]] reported the [[Origin myth|legend]] that the Macedonian kings of the [[Argead dynasty]] were descendants of [[Temenus]] of [[Ancient Argos|Argos]], Peloponnese, who was believed to have had the mythical [[Heracles]] as one of his [[ancestor]]s.<ref name="king 376 sprawski 127 errington 2 3">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=2–3}}.</ref> The legend states that three brothers and descendants of Temenus wandered from [[Illyria]] to [[Upper Macedonia]], where a local king nearly had them killed and forced into exile due to an omen that the youngest, [[Perdiccas I of Macedon|Perdiccas]], would become king. The latter eventually obtained the title after settling near the alleged gardens of [[Midas]] next to [[Mount Bermius]] in [[Lower Macedonia]].<ref name="king 376 sprawski 127 errington 2 3"/> Other legends, mentioned by the Roman historians [[Titus Livius Patavinus|Livy]], [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius]] and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] and by the Greek biographer [[Plutarch]] and the Greek geographer [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] stated that [[Caranus of Macedon]] was the first Macedonian king and that he was succeeded by Perdiccas I.<ref>Titus Livius, "The History of Rome", [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0168%3Abook%3D45%3Achapter%3D9 45.9]: "This was the end of the war between the Romans and Perseus, after four years of steady campaigning, and also the end of a kingdom famed over a large part of Europe and all of Asia. They reckoned Perseus as the twentieth after Caranus, who founded the kingdom."</ref><ref>Marcus Velleius Paterculus, "History of Rome", [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/1*.html 1.6]: "In this period, sixty-five years before the founding of Rome, Carthage was established by the Tyrian Elissa, by some authors called Dido. About this time also Caranus, a man of royal race, eleventh in descent from Hercules, set out from Argos and seized the kingship of Macedonia. From him Alexander the Great was descended in the seventeenth generation, and could boast that, on his mother's side, he was descended from Achilles, and, on his father's side, from Hercules.”</ref><ref>Justin, "Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus", 7.1.7: "But Caranus accompanied by a great multitude of Greeks, having been directed by an oracle to seek a settlement in Macedonia, and having come into Emathia, and followed a flock of goats that were fleeing from a tempest, possessed himself of the city of Edessa...”</ref><ref>Plutarch, “Alexander”, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D1 2.1]: "As for the lineage of Alexander, on his father's side he was a descendant of Heracles through Caranus, and on his mother's side a descendant of Aeacus through Neoptolemus; this is accepted without any question."</ref><ref>Pausanias, "Description of Greece", [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+9.40.8&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 9.40.8–9]: "The Macedonians say that Caranus, king of Macedonia, overcame in battle Cisseus, a chieftain in a bordering country. For his victory Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion, but it is said to have been upset by a lion from Olympus, which then vanished. Caranus, they assert, realized that it was a mistaken policy to incur the undying hatred of the non-Greeks dwelling around, and so, they say, the rule was adopted that no king of Macedonia, neither Caranus himself nor any of his successors, should set up trophies, if they were ever to gain the good-will of their neighbors. This story is confirmed by the fact that Alexander set up no trophies, neither for his victory over Dareius nor for those he won in India."</ref><ref name="errington 1990 2 3">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=3}}.</ref> Greeks of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] generally accepted the origin story provided by Herodotus, or another involving [[Family tree of the Greek gods|lineage]] from [[Zeus]], chief god of the [[Greek mythology|Greek pantheon]], lending credence to the idea that the Macedonian ruling house possessed the [[divine right of kings]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=127}}.</ref> Herodotus wrote that [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454 BC}}) convinced the ''[[Hellanodikai]]'' authorities of the [[Ancient Olympic Games]] that his Argive lineage could be traced back to Temenus, and thus his perceived Greek identity permitted him to enter the Olympic competitions.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=142}}.</ref>

Very little is known about the [[List of ancient Macedonians#Kings|first five kings]] of Macedonia (or the first eight kings depending on which royal chronology is accepted).<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=251}}.</ref> There is much greater evidence for the reigns of [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] ({{reign|547|498 BC}}) and his successor Alexander I, especially due to the aid given by the latter to the Persian commander [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] at the [[Battle of Platea]] in 479 BC, during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}.</ref> Although stating that the first several kings listed by Herodotus were most likely legendary figures, historian [[Robert Malcolm Errington]] uses the rough estimate of twenty-five years for the reign of each of these kings to assume that the capital [[Aigai, Macedonia|Aigai]] (modern [[Vergina]]) could have been under their rule since roughly the mid-7th century BC, during [[Archaic Greece|the Archaic period]].<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=2}}.</ref>

[[File:Oktadrachm of Alexander I 498 – 454 BCE.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A silver ''[[drachm|octadrachm]]'' of [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454 BC}}), [[Mint (facility)|minted]] {{circa|465–460 BC}}, showing an [[equestrianism|equestrian]] figure wearing a ''[[chlamys]]'' (short cloak) and ''[[petasos]]'' (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse]]
The kingdom was situated in the fertile alluvial plain, watered by the rivers [[Haliacmon]] and [[Vardar|Axius]], called Lower Macedonia, north of [[Mount Olympus]]. Around the time of Alexander I, the Argead Macedonians started to expand into Upper Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Greek tribes like the [[Lynkestis|Lyncestae]] and the [[Elimiotis|Elimiotae]], and to the west, beyond the Axius river, into the [[Emathia]], [[Eordaia]], [[Bottiaea]], [[Mygdonia]], [[Crestonia]] and [[Almopia]]; regions settled by, among others, many [[Thracian tribes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Boardman|1994|pp=723–724}}, see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=105–108}} for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the [[Phrygians]].</ref> To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the [[Paeonians]] due north, the [[Thracians]] to the northeast, and the [[Illyrians]], with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|p=5}}.</ref> To the south lay [[Thessaly]], with whose inhabitants the Macedonians had much in common, both culturally and politically, while to the west lay [[Epirus]], with whom the Macedonians had a peaceful relationship and in the 4th century BC formed an alliance against Illyrian raids.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=5–6}}.</ref> Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region approximately corresponding to the [[Western Macedonia|western]] and [[Central Macedonia|central]] parts of the [[Macedonia (Greece)|region of Macedonia]] in modern [[Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2010|pp=67–68, 74–78}}.</ref>

After [[Darius I of Persia]] ({{reign|522|486 BC}}) launched [[European Scythian campaign of Darius I|a military campaign]] against the [[Scythians]] in Europe in 513 BC, he left behind his general [[Megabazus]] to quell the Paeonians, Thracians, and coastal Greek city-states of the southern [[Balkans]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=343}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=134}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=8}}.</ref> In 512/511 BC Megabazus sent envoys demanding Macedonian submission as a [[vassal state]] to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] of [[ancient Persia]], to which Amyntas I responded by formally accepting the [[hegemony]] of the Persian [[king of kings]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=342–343}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=131, 134}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=8–9}}; <br>Errington seems far less convinced that at this point [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian [[tyrant]] [[Hippias (tyrant)|Hippias]] to take refuge at [[Anthemous]] in 506 BC.</ref> This began the period of [[Achaemenid Macedonia]], which lasted for roughly three decades. The Macedonian kingdom was largely [[autonomous]] and outside of Persian control, but was expected to provide troops and provisions for the [[Achaemenid army]].<ref name="olbrycht 2010 343">{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=343}}.</ref> [[Amyntas II (son of Bubares)|Amyntas II]], son of Amyntas I's daughter [[Gygaea of Macedon]] and her husband [[Bubares]], son of Megabazus, was given the [[Phrygia]]n city of [[Alabanda]] as an [[appanage]] by [[Xerxes I]] ({{reign|486|465 BC}}), to secure the Persian-Macedonian [[marriage alliance]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=343}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=136}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=10}}.</ref> Persian authority over Macedonia was interrupted by the [[Ionian Revolt]] (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius was able to subjugate Macedonia, bringing it under Persian rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=344}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=135–137}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9–10}}.</ref> It is doubtful, though, that Macedonia was ever officially included within a Persian [[satrap]]y (i.e. province).<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=137}}.</ref> The Macedonian king Alexander I must have viewed his subordination as an opportunity to aggrandize his own position, since he used Persian military support to extend his own borders.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=344}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=10}}.</ref> The Macedonians provided military aid to Xerxes I during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]] in 480–479 BC, which saw Macedonians and Persians fighting against a Greek coalition led by [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and [[Sparta]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=344–345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=138–139}}.</ref> Following the Greek [[Battle of Salamis|victory at Salamis]], the Persians sent Alexander I as an envoy to Athens, hoping to strike an alliance with their erstwhile foe, yet his diplomatic mission was rebuffed.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–140}}.</ref> Achaemenid control over Macedonia ceased when the Persians were [[Wars of the Delian League|ultimately defeated]] by the Greeks and fled the Greek mainland in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–141}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=11–12}} for further details.</ref>

==Involvement in the Classical Greek world==
{{further|Delian League|Spartan hegemony|Theban hegemony}}
[[File:Silver tetrobol Perdiccas II.jpg|thumb|Silver ''[[obol (coin)|tetraobol]]'' coins issued during the reign of [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas II]] ({{reign|454|413 BC}}).]]
[[File:Map Peloponnesian War 431 BC-en.svg|thumb|300px|Macedon (orange) during the [[Peloponnesian War]] around 431 BC, with [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and the [[Delian League]] (yellow), [[Sparta]] and [[Peloponnesian League]] (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] (purple).]]
Alexander I, who Herodotus claimed was entitled ''[[proxenos]]'' ('host') and ''[[euergetes]]'' ('benefactor') by the Athenians, cultivated a close relationship with the Greeks following the Persian defeat and withdrawal, sponsoring the [[Ancient Greek sculpture|erection of statues]] at both major [[Panhellenic sanctuary| panhellenic sanctuaries]] at [[Delphi]] and [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=141–142}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9, 11–12}}.</ref> After his death in 454 BC, he was granted the posthumous title Alexander I 'the [[Philhellene]]' ('friend of the Greeks'), perhaps designated by later Hellenistic [[Alexandrian school|Alexandrian scholars]], most certainly preserved by the [[Greco-Roman]] historian [[Dio Chrysostom]], and most likely influenced by Macedonian propaganda of the 4th century BC that emphasized the positive role the ancestors of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] ({{reign|359|336 BC}}) had in Greek affairs.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=143}}.</ref> Alexander I's successor [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdicas II]] ({{reign|454|413 BC}}) was not only saddled with internal revolt by the [[petty king]]s of Upper Macedonia, but also faced serious challenges to Macedonian [[territorial integrity]] by [[Sitalces]], a ruler in [[Thrace]], and the Athenians, who fought four separate wars against Macedonia under Perdiccas II.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=145–146}}.</ref> During his reign, Athenian settlers began to encroach upon his coastal territories in Lower Macedonia to gather resources such as [[timber]] and [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] in support of [[Athenian navy|their navy]], a practice that was actively encouraged by the Athenian leader [[Pericles]] when he had colonists settle among the [[Bisaltae]] along the [[Strymon River]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=146}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=13–14}} for further details.</ref> From 476 BC onward, the Athenians coerced some of the coastal towns of Macedonia along the [[Aegean Sea]] to join the Athenian-led [[Delian League]] as [[tributary states]] and in 437/436 BC founded the city of [[Amphipolis]] at the mouth of the Strymon River for access to timber as well as gold and silver from the [[Pangaion Hills]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=13–14, 16}} for further details.</ref>

War broke out in 433 BC when Athens, perhaps seeking additional cavalry and resources in anticipation of the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431–404 BC), allied with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who were in open rebellion against him.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}.</ref> This led Perdiccas to seek alliances with Athens' rivals [[History of Sparta|Sparta]] and [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], yet when his efforts were rejected he instead promoted the rebellion of nearby nominal Athenian allies in [[Chalcidice]], winning over the important city of [[Potidaea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=147}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=18}} for further details.</ref> Athens responded by sending a naval invasion force that captured [[Therma]] and laid siege to [[Pydna]].<ref name="roisman 2010 147"/> However, they were unsuccessful in retaking Chalcidice and Potidaea due to stretching their forces thin by fighting the Macedonians and their allies on multiple fronts, and therefore sued for peace with Macedonia.<ref name="roisman 2010 147">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=147}}.</ref> War resumed shortly after with the Athenian capture of [[Veria|Beroea]] and Macedonian aid given to the Potidaeans during an Athenian siege, yet by 431 BC, the Athenians and Macedonians concluded a peace treaty and alliance orchestrated by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the [[Odrysian kingdom]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=147–148}}.</ref> The Athenians had hoped to use Sitalces against the Macedonians, but due to Sitalces' desire to focus on acquiring more Thracian allies, he convinced Athens to make peace with Macedonia on the condition that he provide cavalry and [[peltast]]s for the Athenian army in Chalcidice.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=148}}.</ref> Under this arrangement, Perdiccas II was given back Therma and no longer had to contend with his rebellious brother, Athens, and Sitacles all at once; in exchange he aided the Athenians in their subjugation of settlements in Chalcidice.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=148}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=19–20}}.</ref>

In 429 BC, Perdiccas II sent aid to the Spartan commander [[Cnemus]] in [[Acarnania]], but the Macedonian forces arrived too late to enter the [[Battle of Naupactus]], which ended in an Athenian victory.<ref name="roisman 2010 149">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=149}}.</ref> In that same year, Sitalces, according to Thucydides, invaded Macedonia at the behest of Athens to aid them in subduing Chalcidice and to punish Perdiccas II for violating the terms of their [[peace treaty]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=149}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=20}}.</ref> However, given Sitalces' huge Thracian invading force (allegedly 150,000 soldiers) and a nephew of Perdiccas II that he intended to place on the Macedonian throne after toppling the latter's regime, Athens must have become wary of acting on their supposed alliance since they failed to provide him with promised naval support.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=149–150}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=20}}.</ref> Sitalces eventually retreated from Macedonia, perhaps due to [[Military logistics|logistical]] concerns: a shortage of provisions and harsh winter conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=150}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=20}}.</ref>

In 424 BC, Perdiccas began to play a prominent role in the Peloponnesian War by aiding the Spartan general [[Brasidas]] in convincing Athenian allies in Thrace [[Defection|to defect]] and ally with Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=150–151}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=21–22}}.</ref> After failing to convince Perdiccas II to make peace with [[Arrhabaeus]] of [[Lynkestis]] (a small region of Upper Macedonia), Brasidas agreed to aid the Macedonian fight against Arrhabaeus, although he expressed his concerns about leaving his Chalcidian allies to their own devices against Athens, as well as the fearsome Illyrian reinforcements arriving on the side of Arrhabaeus.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=151–152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=21–22}}.</ref> The massive combined force commanded by Arrhabaeus apparently caused the army of Perdiccas II to flee in haste [[Battle of Lyncestis|before the battle began]], which enraged the Spartans under Brasidas, who proceeded to snatch pieces of the Macedonian [[baggage train]] left unprotected.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=22}}.</ref> Subsequently, Perdiccas II not only made peace with Athens but switched sides, blocking [[Peloponnesian League|Peloponnesian reinforcements]] from reaching Brasidas via Thessaly.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref> The treaty offered Athens economic concessions, but it also guaranteed internal stability in Macedonia since Arrhabaeus and other domestic detractors were convinced to lay down their arms and accept Perdiccas II as their [[suzerain]] lord.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=152–153}}.</ref>

[[File:Didrachm of Archelaos I King of Macedonia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A Macedonian [[didrachm]] minted during the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] ({{reign|413|399 BC}}).]]
Perdiccas II was obliged to send aid to the Athenian general [[Cleon]], but he and Brasidas died in 422 BC, and the [[Peace of Nicias]] struck in the following year between Athens and Sparta nullified the Macedonian king's responsibilities as an erstwhile Athenian ally.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=153}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref> After the [[Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)|Battle of Mantinea]] in 418 BC, Sparta [[History of Argos|and Argos]] formed a new alliance, which, alongside the threat of neighboring ''[[poleis]]'' in Chalcidice who were aligned with Sparta, induced Perdiccas II to abandon his Athenian alliance in favor of Sparta once again.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=153–154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> This proved to be a strategic error, since Argos quickly switched sides as a pro-Athenian [[democracy]], allowing Athens to punish Macedonia with a naval [[blockade]] in 417 BC along with the resumption of military activity in Chalcidice.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> Perdiccas II agreed to a peace settlement and alliance with Athens once more in 414 BC and, on his death a year later, was succeeded by his son [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus I]] ({{reign|413|399 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=23–24}}.</ref>

Archelaus I maintained good relations with Athens throughout his reign, relying on Athens to provide naval support in his 410 BC siege of Pydna, and in exchange providing Athens with timber and naval equipment.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=154–155}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=24}}.</ref> With improvements to military organization and building of new infrastructure such as fortresses, Archelaus was able to strengthen Macedonia and project his power into Thessaly, where he aided his allies; yet he faced some internal revolt as well as problems fending off [[Illyria]]n incursions led by [[Sirras]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=155–156}}.</ref> Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the [[capital city|capital]] of the kingdom north to [[Pella]], which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the Aegean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref> He improved Macedonia's [[currency]] by minting [[coin]]s with a [[Silver coin|higher silver content]] as well as issuing separate [[Coinage metals|copper coinage]].<ref name="Roisman 2010 156 157">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}.</ref> His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian [[playwright]] [[Euripides]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref>

[[File:Coin of Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|300px|A silver ''[[stater]]'' of [[Amyntas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|393|370 BC}}).]]
[[File:Coin of Perdikkas III. 365-359 BCE.jpg|thumb|300px|A ''[[stater]]'' of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|368|359 BC}}).]]
Historical sources offer wildly different and confused accounts as to who assassinated Archelaus I, although it likely involved a [[Homosexuality in ancient Greece|homosexual]] love affair with [[royal page]]s at his court.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=157–158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=28}}.</ref> What ensued was a power struggle lasting from 399 to 393 BC of four different monarchs claiming the throne: [[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]], son of Archelaus I; [[Aeropus II of Macedon|Aeropus II]], uncle, [[regent]], and murderer of Orestes; [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]], son of Aeropus II; and [[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas II]], who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.<ref name="roisman 158 errington 28 29">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=28–29}}.</ref> Very little is known about this period, although each of these monarchs aside from Orestes managed to mint [[Debasement|debased currency]] imitating that of Archelaus I.<ref name="roisman 2010 158">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=158}}.</ref> Finally, [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]] ({{reign|393|370 BC}}), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, succeeded to the throne by killing Pausanias.<ref name="roisman 158 errington 28 29"/>

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by [[Bardylis]] of the [[Dardani]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=158–159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details.</ref> In this event, Amyntas III is said to have fled his own kingdom and returned with the support of Thessalian allies, while a possible [[pretender]] to the throne named [[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus]] had ruled temporarily in Amyntas III's absence.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details.</ref> When the powerful Chalcidian city of [[Olynthos]] was allegedly poised to overthrow Amyntas III and conquer the Macedonian kingdom, [[Teleutias]], brother of the Spartan king [[Agesilaus II]], sailed to Macedonia with a large Spartan force to provide critical aid to Amyntas III.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=159–160}};</ref> The result of this campaign in 379 BC was the surrender of Olynthos and the abolition of the [[Chalcidian League]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=32–33}}.</ref>

Amyntas III had children with two wives, but it was his eldest son by his marriage with [[Eurydice I of Macedon|Eurydice I]] who succeeded him as [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] ({{reign|370|368 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=34–35}}.</ref> When Alexander II invaded Thessaly and occupied [[Larissa]] and [[Crannon]] as a challenge to the suzerainty of the ''[[Tagus (title)|tagus]]'' (supreme Thessalian military leader) [[Alexander of Pherae]], the Thessalians appealed to [[Pelopidas]] of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] for help to expel both of these rival [[overlord]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=161–162}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=35}}.</ref> After Pelopidas captured Larissa, Alexander II made peace and allied with Thebes, handing over noble [[hostage]]s including his brother and future king, Philip II.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=161–162}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=35–36}}.</ref> Afterwards, [[Ptolemy of Aloros]] assassinated his brother-in-law Alexander II and acted as regent for the latter's younger brother [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]] ({{reign|368|359 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=162}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=35–36}}.</ref> Ptolemy's intervention in Thessaly in 367 BC provoked another Theban invasion by Pelopidas, who was undermined when Ptolemy bribed his mercenaries not to fight, thus leading to a newly proposed alliance between Macedonia and Thebes, but only on the condition that more hostages, including one of his Ptolemy's sons, were to be handed over to Thebes.<ref name="roisman 2010 162 163">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=162–163}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=36}}.</ref> By 365 BC, Perdiccas III had reached the [[age of majority]] and took the opportunity to kill his regent Ptolemy, initiating a sole reign marked by internal stability, financial recovery, fostering of Greek intellectualism at his court, and the return of his brother Philip from Thebes.<ref name="roisman 2010 162 163"/> However, Perdiccas III also dealt with an Athenian invasion by [[Timotheus (general)|Timotheus]], son of [[Conon]], that led to the loss of [[Methoni, Pieria|Methone]] and [[Pydna]], while an invasion of Illyrians led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=163–164}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=37}}.</ref>

==Rise of Macedon==
{{Main|Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II}}
{{further|Argead dynasty|Amyntas IV of Macedon|League of Corinth}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Filip II Macedonia.jpg
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| image2 = Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg
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| footer = '''Left''': a bust of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336 BC}}) from the [[Hellenistic period]], located at [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]] <br>'''Right''': another bust of Philip II, a 1st-century AD [[Hellenistic art#Later Roman copies|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic Greek]] original, now in the [[Vatican Museums]]
}}

[[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336 BC}}), who spent much of his [[adolescence]] as a political hostage in Thebes, was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne and immediately faced crises that threatened to topple his leadership.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=166–167}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> However, with the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under [[Berisades]] to cease their support of [[Pausanias (pretender)|Pausanias]], a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their backing of another pretender named [[Argeus (pretender)|Arg(a)eus]] (perhaps the same who had caused trouble for Amyntas III).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] allies and removing a garrison of Macedonian troops from Amphipolis, establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to that city.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=38}}.</ref> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who [[Battle of Erigon Valley|had threatened his borders]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=167}}.</ref>

[[File:Expansion of Macedon (English).svg|thumb|300px|Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and [[dependent state]]s (yellow).]]
The exact date in which Philip II initiated reforms to radically transform the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]]'s organization, equipment, and training is unknown, including the formation of the [[Macedonian phalanx]] armed with [[Pike (weapon)|long pikes]] (i.e. the ''[[sarissa]]''). The reforms took place over a period of several years and proved immediately successful against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=168}}.</ref> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these military reforms. It is perhaps more likely that his years of captivity in Thebes during the [[Theban hegemony]] influenced his ideas, especially after meeting with the renowned general [[Epaminondas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=168–169}}.</ref>

Although Macedonia and the rest of Greece traditionally practiced [[monogamy]] in marriage, Philip II divulged in the '[[barbarian]]' practice of [[polygamy]], marrying seven different wives with [[Cleopatra Eurydice|perhaps only one]] that didn't involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or the affirmation of a new alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169–170, 179}}; <br>Müller is skeptical about the claims of [[Plutarch]] and [[Athenaeus]] that Philip II of Macedon married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon]], a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own [[midlife crisis]]. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], who along with his father-in-law [[Parmenion]] were given command posts in [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.</ref> For instance, his first marriages were to [[Phila of Elimeia]] of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess [[Audata]], granddaughter(?) of Bardylis, to ensure a marriage alliance with their people.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=169}}.</ref> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman [[Philinna]] in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=170}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|p=62}}.</ref> In 357 BC, he married [[Olympias]] in order to secure an alliance with [[Arybbas of Epirus|Arybbas]], the [[King of Epirus]] and the [[Molossians]]. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as [[Alexander the Great]]) and claim descent from the legendary [[Achilles]] by way of his [[Aeacidae|dynastic heritage from Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=170–171}};  {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=187}}.</ref> It has been argued whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip's practice of polygamy, although it seems to have been practiced by Amyntas III who had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and [[Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167, 169}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}.</ref> Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a ''[[casus belli]]'' for the [[Olynthian War]] (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169, 173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=84}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=38–39}}.</ref>

While Athens was preoccupied with the [[Social War (357–355 BC)]], Philip took this opportunity to retake Amphipolis in 357 BC, for which the Athenians later declared war on him, and by 356 BC, recaptured [[Pydna]] and [[Potidaea]], the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty of 357/356 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=74–75}}.</ref> In this year, he was also able to take [[Crenides (Macedonia)|Crenides]], later refounded as [[Philippi]] and providing much wealth in gold, while his general [[Parmenion]] was victorious against the Illyrian king [[Grabos II]] of the [[Grabaei]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=172}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}.</ref> During the siege of Methone from 355 to 354 BC, Philip lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but was able to capture the city and was even cordial to the defeated inhabitants (unlike the Potidaeans, who had been sold into slavery).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63, 176–181}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=185–187}}; <br>Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.</ref>

It was at this stage when Philip II involved Macedonia in the [[Third Sacred War]] (356–346 BC). The conflict began when [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]] captured and plundered the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] as a response to Thebes' demand that they submit unpaid fines, causing the [[Amphictyonic League]] to declare war on Phocis and a [[civil war]] among the members of the [[Thessalian League]] aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=8, 20–22, 26–29}}.</ref> Philip II's initial campaign against [[Pherae]] in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general [[Onomarchus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=172–173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=60, 185}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63–64, 176–181}}; <br>Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] occurred in 353 BC.</ref> However, he returned the following year and defeated Onomarchus at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]], which led to his election as leader (''[[archon]]'') of the Thessalian League, ability to recruit [[Thessalian cavalry]], provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council and a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding [[Nicesipolis]], niece of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=62, 66–68}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=74–75, 78–80}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=61–63}}.</ref>
[[File:Philip II of Macedon CdM.jpg|thumb|left|''Niketerion'' (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king [[Philip II of Macedon]], 3rd century AD, probably minted during the reign of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Alexander Severus]].]]

After campaigning against the Thracian ruler [[Cersobleptes]], Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League in 349 BC, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Schwahn|1931|loc=col. 1193–1194}}.</ref> Despite an Athenian intervention by [[Charidemus]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=86}}.</ref> Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, whereupon he sold its inhabitants [[Slavery in ancient Greece|into slavery]], bringing back some [[Athenian citizenship|Athenian citizens]] to Macedonia as slaves as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=474–475}}.</ref> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by [[Demosthenes]] known as the ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack, so in 346 BC, they concluded a treaty with Macedonia [[Peace of Philocrates|known as the Peace]] of [[Philocrates]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=75–78}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=96–98}}.</ref> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip would not attack Athenian settlements in the [[Thracian Chersonese]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=98–101}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Phocis and [[Thermopylae]] were captured, the [[Pythia|Delphic temple]] robbers executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council as well as the position of [[master of ceremonies]] over the [[Pythian Games]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=174–175}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=95, 104, 107–108}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|pp=275–277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=478–479}}.</ref> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they were eventually swayed to accept these conditions, partially due to the oration ''[[On the Peace]]'' by Demosthenes.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=175}}.</ref>

For the next few years Philip II was occupied with reorganizing the administrative system of Thessaly, campaigning against the Illyrian ruler [[Pleuratus I]], deposing Arybbas in [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] in favor of his brother-in-law [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander I]] (through Philip II's marriage with Olympias), and defeating Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the [[Hellespont]] in anticipation of an invasion into [[Classical Anatolia|Achaemenid Asia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=114–117}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|p=482}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}.</ref> In what is now [[Bulgaria]], Philip II conquered the [[List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia|Thracian city]] of [[History of Plovdiv|Panegyreis]] in 342 BC and reestablished it as [[Philippopolis (Thracia)|Philippopolis]] (modern [[Plovdiv]], [[Roman Bulgaria|Roman-era]] Trimontium).<ref>{{harvnb|Mollov|Georgiev|2015|p=76}}.</ref> War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of [[Perinthus]] and [[Byzantion]], followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the [[Danube]] and Macedonia's involvement in the [[Fourth Sacred War]] against [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] in 339 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=136–142}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=82–83}}.</ref> Hostilities between Thebes and Macedonia began when Thebes ousted a Macedonian garrison from [[Nicaea, Locris|Nicaea (near Thermopylae)]], leading Thebes to join Athens, [[Megara]], Corinth, [[Achaea]], and [[Euboea]] in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=143–148}}.</ref> The Athenian oligarch [[Philippides of Paiania]] was instrumental in the Macedonian victory at [[Chaeronea]] by assisting Philip{{nbsp}}II's cause, but was later prosecuted in Athens as a traitor by the [[Attic orators|orator]] and statesman [[Hypereides]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Edward |title=Dinarchus, Hyperides and Lycurgus |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-79142-9 |pages=80–83}}</ref>

After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II imposed harsh conditions on Thebes, installing an [[oligarchy]] there, yet was lenient to Athens due to his desire to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–168}}.</ref> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the [[League of Corinth]] that included the major Greek city-states minus Sparta, being elected as the leader (''[[hegemon]]'') of its council (''[[synedrion]]'') by the spring of 337 BC despite the Kingdom of Macedonia being excluded as an official member of the league.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=177–178}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–171}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=16}} for further details.</ref> The [[Panhellenic]] fear of another Persian invasion of Greece perhaps contributed to Philip II's decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=348, 351}}</ref> The Persian aid offered to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC highlighted Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as [[Artaxerxes III]] further consolidated his control over satrapies in [[Geography of Anatolia|western Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=347–349}}</ref> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=351}}</ref>

[[File:Olympia (12).jpg|thumb|The ruins of the [[Philippeion]] at [[Olympia, Greece]], which was built by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to celebrate his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338 BC<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=227}}.</ref>]]
After his election by the League of Corinth as their [[commander-in-chief]] (''[[strategos]] [[autokrator]]'') of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire, Philip II sought to shore up further Macedonian support by marrying [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]], niece of general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]].<ref name="muller 179-180 cawkwell 170"/> Yet talk of providing new potential heirs infuriated Philip II's son Alexander (already a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea) and his mother Olympias, who fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella.<ref name="muller 179-180 cawkwell 170">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=179–180}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=170}}.</ref> Further tensions arose when Philip II offered his son Arrhidaeus's hand in marriage to [[Ada of Caria]], daughter of [[Pixodarus]], the Persian satrap of [[Caria]]. When Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead, Philip cancelled the wedding arrangements altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors [[Ptolemy I|Ptolemy]], [[Nearchus]], and [[Harpalus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=180–181}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=14}} for further details.</ref> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, yet Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard [[Pausanias of Orestis]] during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=181–182}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}; see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]].</ref>

==Empire==
{{further|Wars of Alexander the Great|Wars of the Diadochi|Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia}}
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| footer            = '''Left''': Bust of [[Alexander the Great]] by the Athenian sculptor [[Leochares]], c. 330 BC, [[Acropolis Museum]], Athens <br>'''Right''': Bust of Alexander the Great, a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of the [[Roman Empire|Imperial Era]] (1st or 2nd century AD) after an original [[bronze sculpture]] made by the [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek sculptor]] [[Lysippos]], [[Louvre]], Paris
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[[File:Alexander-Empire 323bc.jpg|thumb|350px|The empire of [[Alexander the Great]] at the time [[Death of Alexander the Great|of his death]] in 323 BC.]]

Before Philip II was assassinated in the summer of 336 BC, relations with his son Alexander had degenerated to the point where he excluded him entirely from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as [[regent of Greece]] and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}.</ref> This, alongside his mother Olympias' apparent concern over Philip II bearing another potential heir with his new wife Cleopatra Eurydice, have led scholars to wrangle over the idea of her and Alexander's possible roles in Philip's murder.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=182–183}}; <br>Without implicating [[Alexander III of Macedon]] as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[N.G.L. Hammond]] and [[F.W. Walbank]] discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as [[Demosthenes]] and [[Darius III]]: {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=8–12}}.</ref> Nonetheless, Alexander III ({{reign|336|323 BC}}) was immediately proclaimed king by [[Popular assembly|an assembly]] of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being [[Antipater]] and [[Parmenion]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Renault|2001|pp=61–62}}; {{harvnb|Fox|1980|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for further details.</ref> By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of [[mainland Greece]], [[Asia Minor]], the [[Levant]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], and much of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}.</ref> His first pressing concerns, however, would be to bury his father at Aigai and to pursue [[Alexander's Balkan campaign|a campaign of suppression]] closer to home in the Balkans.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}.</ref> Following Philip's death, the members of the League of Corinth revolted, yet were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, Alexander forcing them to rejoin the league and elect him as ''hegemon'' to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=190–191}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=15–16}} for further details.</ref> Alexander also took the opportunity to settle the score he had with his rival Attalus (who had taunted him during the wedding feast of his daughter Cleopatra Eurydice and Philip II) by having him executed.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 191">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}.</ref>

In 335 BC, Alexander led a campaign against the Thracian tribe of the [[Triballi]] at [[Haemus Mons]], fighting them along the [[Danube]] and forcing their surrender on [[Peuce Island]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=34–38}}.</ref> Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian king [[Cleitus (Dardania)|Cleitus]] of the [[Dardani]] threatened to attack Macedonia, yet Alexander took the initiative and [[Siege of Pelium|besieged them]] at [[Pelion (Illyria)|Pelion]] (in modern [[Albania]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=40–47}}.</ref> When Alexander was given news that Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and were besieging the Macedonian garrison in the [[Cadmea]], Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he [[Battle of Thebes|placed under siege]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=91}} and {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=47}} for further details.</ref> After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as [[prisoners of war]], and burned the city to the ground as a warning to others, which proved effective since no other Greek state aside from Sparta dared to challenge Alexander for the remainder of his reign.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=191–192}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=91–92}} for further details.</ref>

Throughout his military career and kingship, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=192–193}}.</ref> His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the [[Battle of the Granicus]] in 334 BC utilized a small cavalry contingent that successfully distracted the Persians, allowed his infantry to cross the river, and his [[Companion cavalry|Companions]] to drive them from the battle with a [[cavalry charge]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=193}}.</ref> Following the tradition of Macedonian warrior kings, Alexander personally led the cavalry charge at the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king [[Darius III]] and his army to flee.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331 BC.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of [[Bactria]] and kinsman, [[Bessus]], in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now [[Afghanistan]], securing the region of [[Sogdia]] in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Holt|2012|pp=27–41}}.</ref> At the 326 BC [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (modern-day [[Punjab]]), when the [[war elephant]]s of [[King Porus]] of the [[Pauravas]] threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their ''sarissa'' pikes.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}.</ref> When his Macedonian troops threatened [[mutiny]] at [[Opis]], [[Babylonia]] (near modern [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]) in 324 BC, Alexander III offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness, which the king offered at a banquet urging reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=194}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=113}}.</ref>

[[File:Stag hunt mosaic, Pella.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]], c. 300 BC, from [[Pella]]; the figure on the right is possibly [[Alexander the Great]] due to the date of the [[mosaic]] along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (''anastole''); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with [[Hephaistos]]) is perhaps [[Hephaestion]], one of Alexander's loyal companions.]]
Despite his skills as a commander, Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of [[wikt:megalomania|megalomania]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195"/> While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the [[Gordian Knot]], he also attempted to portray himself as a [[Sacred king|living god]] and son of [[Zeus]] following his visit to the [[oracle]] at [[Siwah]] in the [[Libyan Desert]] (in modern-day [[Egypt]]) in 331 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=194–195}}.</ref> When he attempted to have his men prostrate before him at [[Bactra]] in 327 BC in an act of ''[[proskynesis]]'' (borrowed from the Persian kings), the Macedonians and other Greeks considered this blasphemy and usurpation of the authority of the gods. Alexander's court historian [[Callisthenes]] refused to perform this ritual there and the others took his example, an act of protest that led Alexander to abandon the practice.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=195}}.</ref> When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at [[Ecbatana]] in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people," according to Errington.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=105–106}}.</ref> His murder of [[Cleitus the Black]] in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=198}}.</ref> He also pursued the polygamous habits of his father Philip II and encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed [[Roxana]], a Sogdian princess of Bactria.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1989|pp=67–68}}.</ref> He then married [[Stateira II]], eldest daughter of Darius III, and [[Parysatis II]], youngest daughter of [[Artaxerxes III]], at the [[Susa weddings]] in 324 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=196}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, in Greece the only disturbance to Macedonian rule was the attempt by the [[Spartan king]] [[Agis III]] to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against the Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=199}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=93}}.</ref> However, he was defeated in 331 BC at the [[Battle of Megalopolis]] by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=199–200}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=44, 93}}; <br>Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity about the exact title of [[Antipater]] aside from deputy ''[[hegemon]]'' of the [[League of Corinth]], with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.<br>[[N.G.L. Hammond]] and [[F.W. Walbank]] state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=32}}.</ref> Although the governor of Thrace, Memnon, had threatened to rebel, it appears that Antipater dissuaded him with diplomacy before campaigning against Agis III in the [[Peloponnese]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=200–201}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=58}}.</ref> Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=201}}.</ref> Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the [[tyrannies]] installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom restored (despite the possibility that the Macedonian king most likely had Antipater install them in the first place).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=201–203}}.</ref>

[[File:Coins of Philip III Arrhidaeus. 323-317 BC.jpg|thumb|left|A golden stater of [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317 BC}}) bearing images of [[Athena]] (left) and [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] (right).]]
When [[Death of Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great died]] at [[Babylon]] in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction with poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}} for further details.</ref> With no official [[heir apparent]], the loyalties of the Macedonian military command became split between one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus ({{reign|323|317 BC}}) as king and another siding with Alexander's infant son with Roxana, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] ({{reign|323|309 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=115–117}} for further details.</ref> Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the [[Lamian War]] (323–322 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69–70, 119}}.</ref> When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (323 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]], he fled to [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]] where he was besieged by the Athenian commander [[Leosthenes]]. [[Leonnatus]] rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=204–205}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=209–210}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69, 119}}.</ref> Although Antipater ultimately subdued the rebellion, he died in 319 BC and left a vacuum of power wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in [[Wars of the Diadochi|a power struggle]] between the ''[[diadochi]]'', the former generals of Alexander's army who were now carving up his empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=205}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=118}} for further details.</ref>

[[File:Diadochi LA.svg|thumb|Kingdoms of the [[diadochi]] c. 301 BC, after the [[Battle of Ipsus]] 
{{legend|#787CAD|Kingdom of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]}}
{{legend|#50A249|Kingdom of [[Cassander]]}}
{{legend|#C38833|Kingdom of [[Lysimachus]]}}
{{legend|#C3B933|Kingdom of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]}}
{{legend|#AF3662|[[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]]}}
Other
{{legend|#A361BD|[[Carthage]]}}
{{legend|#70A9BE|[[Roman Republic]]}}
{{legend|#85AB54|[[Ancient Greece|Greek States]]}}]]
A [[Partition of Babylon|council of the army convened immediately]] after Alexander's death in Babylon, naming Philip III as king and the [[chiliarch]] [[Perdiccas]] as his regent.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=208–209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=117}}.</ref> However, Antipater, [[Antigonus Monophthalmus]], [[Craterus]], and Ptolemy, concerned about Perdiccas' increasing signs of self-aggrandizement, formed a coalition against him in open civil war that began with Ptolemy's [[Tomb of Alexander the Great|seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=210–211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=119–120}}.</ref> When Perdiccas invaded Egypt in the summer of 321 BC to assault Ptolemy, he marched along the [[Nile River]] where 2,000 of his men drowned, leading the officers under his command to conspire against him and assassinate him.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=120–121}}.</ref> Although [[Eumenes of Cardia]] managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had no grand effect on the course of events now that the victorious coalition convened in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] to settle the issue of a new regency and territorial rights in the 321 BC [[Partition of Triparadisus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=211–212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=121–122}}.</ref> The council appointed Antipater as regent over the two kings, after which Antipater delegated authority to the leading generals. However, before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist [[Polyperchon]] as the regent to succeed him, passing over his own son [[Cassander]], ignoring the right of the king to choose a regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), and bypassing the council of the army as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=207 n. #1, 212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=122–123}}.</ref>

Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and [[Lysimachus]], Cassander had his officer [[Nicanor (Antipatrid general)|Nicanor]] capture the [[Munichia]] fortress of Athens' port town [[Piraeus]] in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the [[Second War of the Diadochi]] (319–315 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=212–213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=124–126}}.</ref> Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC Philip III, by way of his politically-engaged wife [[Eurydice II of Macedon]], officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.<ref name="adams 213 errington 126-127"/> Afterwards Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias, mother of Alexander III who still resided in [[Epirus]].<ref name="adams 213 errington 126-127">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=126–127}}.</ref> A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=213–214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=127–128}}.</ref> Olympias then had Nicanor killed along with dozens of leading Macedonian nobles, yet by the spring of 316 BC Cassander defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=128–129}}.</ref>

Cassander married Philip II's daughter [[Thessalonike of Macedon|Thessalonike]], inducting him into the Argead dynastic house, and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as [[Epidamnos]], although by 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king [[Glaucias of Taulantii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=214–215}}.</ref> By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject [[Seleucus Nicator]] from his satrapy of Babylonia; in reaction to this a coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus issued an ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=215}}.</ref> Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, king Alexander IV and the [[queen mother]] Roxana.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=215–216}}.</ref> The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as 'first in Asia', Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=216}}.</ref> Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, had [[Heracles of Macedon]] executed in 309 BC as part of a peace settlement with Polyperchon, and by 306–305 BC the ''diadochi'' were declared kings of their respective territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=129}}.</ref>

==Hellenistic era==
{{further|Antipatrid dynasty|Antigonid dynasty|Hellenistic period|Pyrrhic War|Chremonidean War|Cleomenean War}}
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|image4=Lisimaco (c.d.), copia augustea (23 ac-14 dc) da orig. del II sec ac. 6141.JPG|width4=76|
|footer=The portrait busts of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] (top left), [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] (top right), [[Seleucus I Nicator]] (bottom left), and [[Lysimachus]] (bottom right), [[Roman portraiture|Roman-era copies]] of [[Hellenistic sculpture|Hellenistic Greek originals]] from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]}}

The beginning of [[Hellenistic Greece]] was defined by the struggle between the [[Antipatrid dynasty]], led first by [[Cassander]] ({{reign|305|297 BC}}), son of [[Antipater]], and the [[Antigonid dynasty]], led by [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] ({{reign|306|301 BC}}) and his son, the future king [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] ({{reign|294|288 BC}}). While Cassander was besieging Athens in 303 BC, Demetrius invaded [[Boeotia]] in order to sever Cassander's path of retreat back to Macedonia, although Cassander managed to hastily abandon the siege and march back to Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=145}}.</ref> While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's [[League of Corinth|Hellenic league]] with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, [[Ptolemy I Soter]] ({{reign|305|283 BC}}) of Egypt's [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], [[Seleucus I Nicator]] ({{reign|305|281 BC}}) of the [[Seleucid Empire]], and [[Lysimachus]] ({{reign|306|281 BC}}), [[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|King of Thrace]] decisively defeated the Antigonids at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=145–147}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref>

Cassander died in 297 BC and his sickly son [[Philip IV of Macedon]] died the same year, being succeeded by Cassander's other sons [[Alexander V of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294 BC}}) and [[Antipater II of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294 BC}}), with their mother [[Thessalonike of Macedon]] acting as regent.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother and regent to obtain power.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] ({{reign|297|272 BC}}),<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, yet spent time as a hostage in Egypt as stipulated in an alliance treaty between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref> In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=153}}.</ref> Demetrius marched north and invited his nephew Alexander V into his camp for a banquet on friendly pretenses, yet had him assassinated as he attempted to leave. Demetrius was then proclaimed king in Macedonia, yet his subjects became increasingly concerned by his conduct as a seemingly aloof monarch and Eastern-style [[autocracy|autocrat]].<ref name="adams 2010 218">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}.</ref>

War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when [[Lanassa (wife of Pyrrhus)|Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus]], daughter of [[Agathocles of Syracuse]], left him for Demetrius and offered him her [[dowry]] of [[Corcyra]].<ref name="adams 218-219 bringmann 61"/> The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of [[Ancient Macedonians|the Macedonians]] and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking [[western Macedonia]] and the latter eastern Macedonia.<ref name="adams 218-219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=218–219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref>

By 286 BC, Lysimachus was able to expel Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia altogether, yet in 282 BC, a new war erupted between Lysimachus and Seleucus I.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=155}}; <br>Conversely, Errington dates [[Lysimachus]]' reunification of Macedonia by expelling [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] as 284 BC, not 286 BC.</ref> The conflict came to a head at the [[Battle of Corupedion]] where Lysimachus was killed, allowing Seleucus I to claim both Thrace and Macedonia.<ref name="adams 219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=156–157}}.</ref> In yet another reversal of fortunes, Seleucus I was then assassinated in 281 BC by his officer [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia.<ref name="adams 219 bringmann 61"/> There was little respite from the political chaos in Macedonia, though, since Ptolemy Keraunos was killed in battle in 279 BC by [[Galatians (people)|Celtic invaders]] in the [[Gallic invasion of Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=159–160}}.</ref> The Macedonian army proclaimed the general [[Sosthenes of Macedon]] as king, although he apparently refused the title.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=160}}.</ref> After defeating the Gallic ruler [[Bolgios]] and driving out the raiding party of [[Brennus (3rd century BC)|Brennus]], Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=160–161}}.</ref> The Gallic warbands ravaged Macedonia until the arrival of [[Antigonus Gonatas]], son of Demetrius, who defeated them in Thrace at the [[Battle of Lysimachia]] in 277 BC. He was then proclaimed king [[Antigonus II of Macedon]] ({{reign|277|274 BC|272|239 BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=162–163}}.</ref>

Beginning in 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in [[Magna Graecia]] (i.e. [[southern Italy]]) against the [[Roman Republic]] known as the [[Pyrrhic War]], followed by his [[Siege of Syracuse (278 BC)|invasion of Sicily]].<ref name="adams 219-220 bringmann 2007 63">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}.</ref> Ptolemy Keraunos had secured his position on the Macedonian throne by gifting Pyrrhus five-thousand soldiers and twenty [[war elephant]]s for this endeavor.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61"/> Pyrrhus returned to [[Epirus]] in 275 BC after the [[stalemate]] and ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the [[rise of Rome]] now that [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek cities in southern Italy]] such as [[Taranto|Tarentum]] became Roman allies.<ref name="adams 219-220 bringmann 2007 63"/> Despite having a depleted treasury, Pyrrhus decided to invade Macedonia in 274 BC, due to the perceived political instability of Antigonus II's regime. After defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC [[Battle of the Aous (274 BC)|Battle of Aous]], Pyrrhus was able to drive him out of Macedonia and force him to take refuge with his naval fleet.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=164}}.</ref>

[[File:Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ancient Macedonia]]n paintings of [[Hellenistic]] military arms and armor from the [[Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles|tomb of Lyson and Callicles]] in ancient [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] (modern-day Lefkadia), [[Imathia]], [[Central Macedonia]], [[Greece]], 2nd century BC.]]
Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of [[Aigai, Macedonia|Aigai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=164–165}}.</ref> Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in Greece, yet while he was occupied with the war in the [[Peloponnese]], Antigonus II was able to recapture Macedonia.<ref name="adams 2010 220"/> While battling for control over [[Ancient Argos|Argos]] in 272 BC, Pyrrhus was killed while fighting in the city's streets, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim Greece as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=167}}.</ref> He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai by constructing a massive [[tumulus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=165–166}}.</ref> Antigonus II also secured the Illyrian front and annexed [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]].<ref name="adams 2010 220">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}.</ref>

The Antigonid naval fleets docked at [[Corinth]] and [[Chalkis]] during the reign of Antigonus II also proved instrumental in the maintenance of Antigonid-imposed local regimes in various Greek cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=220–221}}.</ref> However, the [[Aetolian League]] proved to be a perennial problem for Antigonus II's ambitions in controlling [[Central Greece (geographic region)|central Greece]], while the formation of the [[Achaean League]] in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=167–168}} about the resurgence of [[Sparta]] under [[Areus I]].</ref> While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia during the [[Syrian Wars]] against Ptolemaic Egypt, the latter used its powerful navy to disrupt Antigonus II's efforts in controlling mainland Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=168}}.</ref> With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman [[Chremonides]] led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=168–169}}.</ref> However, by 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the [[Battle of Cos]], and Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=169–171}}.</ref> After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler [[Antiochus II]], a peace settlement between Antigonus II and [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.<ref name="adams 2010 221">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}.</ref>

[[File:Apollon Tempel im antiken Korinth.jpg|thumb|The [[Ancient Greek temple|Temple]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Corinth]], built c. 540 BC, with the [[Acrocorinth]] (i.e. the [[acropolis]] of Corinth that once held a [[Antigonid Macedonian army|Macedonian garrison]])<ref name="adams 2010 222"/> seen in the background]]
However, in 251 BC, [[Aratus of Sicyon]] led a rebellion against Antigonus II and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II openly threw his support behind the self-proclaimed king [[Alexander of Corinth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=221–222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=172}}.</ref> Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies at the [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|Battle of Andros]], the Macedonians lost the [[Acrocorinth]] to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=172–173}}.</ref> Antigonus II finally made peace with the Achaean League in a treaty of 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=173}}.</ref> Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son [[Demetrius II of Macedon]] ({{reign|239|229 BC}}). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the [[queen mother]] and regent [[Olympias II of Epirus]] offered her daughter [[Phthia of Macedon]] to Demetrius II in marriage, which he accepted yet damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing [[Stratonice of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.<ref name="adams 2010 222">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}.</ref>

Demetrius II's control of Greece diminished by the end of his reign, though, when he lost [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] in 235 BC and most of the Peloponnese except Argos to the Achaean League.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=173–174}}.</ref> He also was denied an ally [[Epirus (ancient state)|in Epirus]] when the [[Deidamia II of Epirus|monarchy was toppled]] in a [[Epirote League|republican revolution]].<ref name="adams 223 errington 174">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Demetrius II's struggle to defend [[Acarnania]] against Aetolia became so desperate that he enlisted the aid of the [[Illyria]]n king [[Agron of Illyria|Agron]], whose Illyrian pirates raided the coasts of western Greece and even defeated the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the [[Battle of Paxos]] in 229 BC.<ref name="adams 223 errington 174"/> Yet another Illyrian ruler [[Longarus]] of the [[Dardanian Kingdom]] invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Although his child son, [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip]] immediately inherited the throne, his regent [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221 BC}}), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army and Philip as his heir following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in [[Thessaly]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=175–176}}.</ref>

[[File:Tetradrachm, 229-221, Antigonos Doson.jpg|thumb|left|A ''[[tetradrachm]]'' minted during the reign of [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221 BC}}), possibly at [[Amphipolis]], bearing the portrait image of [[Poseidon]] on the [[obverse]] and a scene on the reverse depicting [[Apollo]] sitting on the [[Hellenistic-era warships|prow of a ship]].]]
Although the Achaean League had been fighting Macedonia for decades, Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king [[Cleomenes III]] of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the [[Cleomenean War]] (229–222 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=179–180}} for further details.</ref> In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=180–181}}.</ref> Antigonus III's first move against Sparta was to capture [[Arcadia (region)|Arcadia]] in the spring of 224 BC.<ref name="adams 2010 224">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}.</ref> After reforming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth and hiring Illyrian mercenaries for additional support, Antigonus III managed to defeat Sparta at the [[Battle of Sellasia]] in 222 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=181–183}}.</ref> For the first time in Sparta's history, their city was then occupied by a foreign power, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=182}} about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the [[Battle of Sellasia]].</ref> Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from [[tuberculosis]], leaving behind a strong [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic kingdom]] for his successor Philip V.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=183–184}}.</ref>

[[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179 BC}}) was only 17 when he acceded to the throne and, despite the successes of his predecessor Antigonus III, faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian [[Dardani]] and Aetolian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}};  {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=184–185}}.</ref> Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]], yet Philip V pursued a peace settlement with the Aetolians once he heard of a renewed presence of the Dardani in the north and the [[History of Carthage|Carthaginian]] victory over [[History of the Roman Republic|the Romans]] at the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] in 217 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=185–186, 189}}.</ref> [[Demetrius of Pharos]] is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first [[Illyrian Wars|secure Illyria]] in advance of an invasion of the [[Italian peninsula]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=229–230}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=186–189}} for further details; <br>Errington seems less convinced that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=189}}.</ref> In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred [[Hellenistic-era warships|light warships]] into the [[Adriatic Sea]] to attack Illyria, a motion that did not go unnoticed by Rome when [[Scerdilaidas]] of the [[Ardiaean Kingdom]] appealed to the Romans for aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=189–190}}.</ref> Rome responded by sending ten heavy [[quinquereme]]s from [[Roman Sicily]] to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=230–231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=190–191}}.</ref>

==Conflict with Rome==
{{main|Macedonian Wars}}
{{further|Cretan War (205–200 BC)|Punic Wars|Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty}}
[[File:Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png|thumb|The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] ({{reign|221|179 BC}}), with Macedonian [[dependent state]]s (dark yellow), the [[Seleucid Empire]] (bright yellow), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[protectorate]]s (dark green), the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the [[Ptolemaic Empire]] (violet purple)]]
In 215 BC, at the height of the [[Second Punic War]] with the [[Carthaginian Empire]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authorities intercepted a ship off the [[Calabria]]n coast holding both a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador to Macedonia, who possessed a [[Punic language|Punic]] document (later translated [[Greek language|into Greek]] and preserved by [[Polybius]]) of [[Hannibal]] declaring an alliance with [[Philip V of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=192}}; also mentioned by {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=19}}.</ref> [[Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty|The treaty]] stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate terms with Rome after its hypothetical surrender, yet it deferred to the Macedonian interests in the [[Adriatic Sea]] and promised mutual aid in the event that a resurgent Rome, after losing its allies in [[Northern Italy|northern]] and [[southern Italy]], should lash out at either Macedonia or Carthage in revenge.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=80}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193}} for further details.</ref> Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their conquered territories in Illyria,<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193, 210}}.</ref> the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart Philip V's ambitions in the Adriatic during the [[First Macedonian War]] (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a [[Roman navy|naval fleet]] at [[Oricus]] when it along with [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]] were assaulted by Macedonian forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=193}}.</ref> When the Macedonians captured [[Lissus (Illyria)|Lissus]] in 212 BC and potentially threatened southern Italy in support of Hannibal, the [[Roman Senate]] responded by inciting the [[Aetolian League]], as well as [[Attalus I]] ({{reign|241|197 BC}}) of [[Pergamon]], [[Sparta]], [[ancient Elis|Elis]], and [[Messenia]] to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from the Italian peninsula.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=232–233}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=17–18, 20}}.</ref>

A year after the Aetolian League concluded a [[peace agreement]] with Philip V in 206 BC, the [[Roman Republic]] negotiated the [[Treaty of Phoenice]], which ended the war and allowed the Macedonians to retain the settlements they had captured in Illyria.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=83}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=233–234}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=195–196}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=21}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=18–19}} for details on the [[Aetolian League]]'s treaty with [[Philip V of Macedon]] and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.</ref> Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally [[Rhodes]] in 201 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=85}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–197}} for further details.</ref> These states grew increasingly concerned once Philip V formed an alliance with [[Antiochus III the Great]] of the [[Seleucid Empire]], which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted [[Ptolemaic Empire]] in the [[Fifth Syrian War]] (202–195 BC), while Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=234–235}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–198}}; see also {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}} for further details.</ref> Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the ''[[comitia centuriata]]'' (i.e. people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–201}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=22}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Philip V conquered vital territories in the [[Hellespont]] and [[Bosporus]] as well as Ptolemaic [[Samos]], which led Rhodes to [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)|form an alliance with Pergamon]], [[Byzantium]], [[Cyzicus]], and [[Chios]] against Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=235}} for further details.</ref> Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201 BC and was subsequently blockaded at [[Bargylia]] by a combined fleet of the victorious Rhodian and Pergamene navies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=197–198}}.</ref>

[[File:Philip V. 221-179 BCE.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A [[tetradrachm]] of [[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179 BC}}), with the king's portrait on the [[obverse]] and [[Athena Alkidemos]] brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse]]
While Philip V was ensnared in a conflict with several Greek maritime powers, Rome viewed these unfolding events as an opportunity to punish a former ally of Hannibal, come to the aid of its Greek allies, and commit to a war that perhaps required a limited amount of resources in order to achieve victory.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=86–87}}.</ref> With [[Carthage]] finally subdued following the Second Punic War, Bringmann contends that the Roman strategy changed from protecting southern Italy from Macedonia, to exacting revenge on Philip V for allying with Hannibal.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=87}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=202–203}}: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."</ref> However, Arthur M. Eckstein stresses that the Roman Senate "did not plot long range-strategies" and instead "lurched from crisis to crisis" while allowing itself to become involved in the Hellenistic east only at the strong urging of its allies and despite its own exhausted and war-weary populace.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=233–235}}.</ref> The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for any and all grievances. Seeking either war or humiliation for the Macedonian king, his predictable rejection of their proposal served as a useful tool of propaganda demonstrating the honorable and ''[[philhellenic]]'' intentions of the Romans contrasted with the combative and antagonistic Macedonian response.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=87}}.</ref> When the ''comitia centuriata'' finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war and handed their [[ultimatum]] to Philip V by the summer of 200 BC, demanding that a [[tribunal]] assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it outright. This marked the beginning of the [[Second Macedonian War]] (200–197 BC), with [[Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus]] spearheading [[military operation]]s by landing at Apollonia along the coast of Illyria with two [[Roman legion]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=87–88}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–200}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}} for further details.</ref>

[[File:Eumene II, fondatore della biblioteca di pergamo, copia romana (50 dc ca) da orig,. ellenistico su busto moderno, MANN 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Bronze bust of [[Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamon]], a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek original]], from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] in [[Herculaneum]]]]
Although the Macedonians were able to successfully defend their territory for roughly two years,<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}.</ref> the [[Roman consul]] [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus]] managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC with him and his forces taking refuge in Thessaly.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}.</ref> When the [[Achaean League]] abandoned Philip V to join the Roman-led coalition, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent and so the war continued.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88"/> In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=203}}.</ref> Rome, dismissing the Aetolian League's demands to dismantle the Macedonian monarchy altogether, ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions, including [[Corinth]], while allowing it to preserve its core territory, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=236–237}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=204}}.</ref> Although the Greeks, especially the Aetolians, suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the [[Isthmian Games]] of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek [[liberty]] by leaving behind no garrisons or exacting [[tribute]] of any kind.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=88–89}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}}.</ref> This promise was delayed due to the Spartan king [[Nabis of Sparta|Nabis]] capturing Argos, necessitating Roman intervention and a peace settlement with the Spartans, yet the Romans finally evacuated Greece in the spring of 194 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=89–90}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}} and {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=20–21, 24}} for further details.</ref>

Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid king]] Antiochus III landed with his army at [[Demetrias]], Thessaly in 192 BC, and was elected ''strategos'' by the Aetolians.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=237–238}}.</ref> However, Philip V of Macedon maintained his alliance with the Romans, along with the Achaean League, Rhodes, Pergamon, and Athens.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref> The Romans [[Roman–Seleucid War|defeated the Seleucids]] in the 191 BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]] as well as the [[Battle of Magnesia]] in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a [[war indemnity]], dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the [[Taurus Mountains]] in the [[Treaty of Apamea]] in 188 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=30, 33}} for further details.</ref> In 191–189 BC, Philip V, with Rome's acceptance, was able to capture some cities in central Greece that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and [[Eumenes II]] ({{reign|197|159 BC}}) of Pergamon gained significantly larger territories in [[Asia Minor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref>
[[File:Perseus of Macedon BM.jpg|thumb|left|A [[tetradrachm]] of [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168 BC}}); [[British Museum]]]]

While becoming increasingly entangled in Greek affairs and failing to please all sides in various disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon the cities of [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]], since these were declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=93–97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}} <br>Bringmann dates this event of handing over [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]] along the [[Thracian]] coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.</ref> It also assuaged the fears of Eumenes II that these Macedonian-held settlements would no longer threaten the security of his possessions in the Hellespont.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}} for further details.</ref> [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168 BC}}) succeeded Philip V and executed [[Demetrius (son of Philip V)|his brother Demetrius]], who had been favored by the Romans yet was charged by Perseus with [[high treason]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=240–241}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=211–213}} for a discussion about Perseus' actions during the early part of his reign.</ref> Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with [[Prusias II of Bithynia]] and [[Seleucus IV Philopator]] of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=97–98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}.</ref> Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the [[Boeotian League]], extended his authority into Illyria [[Abrupolis|and Thrace]], and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi in the [[Amphictyonic Council]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=212–213}}.</ref>

Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to [[Senate of the Roman Republic|the Senate]] denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=241–242}}.</ref> This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC), although [[Klaus Bringmann]] asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "[[Realpolitik|political calculation]]" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed in order to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=242}}, who says that "Rome&nbsp;... as the sole remaining superpower&nbsp;... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."</ref> Although Perseus' forces were victorious against the Romans at the [[Battle of Callinicus]] in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the [[Battle of Pydna]] in June 168 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=243–244}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=215–216}}; {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}}.</ref> Perseus fled to [[Samothrace]] but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to [[Rome]] for the [[Roman triumph|triumph]] of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus]], and placed under [[house arrest]] at [[Alba Fucens]] where he died in 166 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=204–205, 216}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}} for further details.</ref>

The Romans formally disestablished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied [[republic]]s in its stead, their capitals located at [[Amphipolis]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Pella]], and [[Pelagonia]].<ref name="bringmann 99-100 eckstein 245">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=99–100}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=43–46}} for further details.</ref> The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these respective republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on the use of Macedonia's gold and silver mines.<ref name="bringmann 99-100 eckstein 245"/> However, a certain [[Andriscus]] claiming Antigonid descent rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman [[praetor]] Publius Iuventius Thalna during the [[Fourth Macedonian War]] (150–148 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=246–247}}.</ref> Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the [[Battle of Pydna (148 BC)|second Battle of Pydna]] by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus]], whose forces occupied the kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=247}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}.</ref> This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman [[destruction of Carthage]] and victory over the Achaean League at the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]], ushering in the era of [[Roman Greece]] and the gradual establishment of the [[Roman province of Macedonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=203–205, 216–217}}.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ancient Macedonians]]
* [[Ancient Macedonian language]]
* [[Antigonid Macedonian army]]
* [[Demographic history of Macedonia]]
* [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
* [[List of ancient Macedonians]]
* [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
* [[Macednon]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|35em}}
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*{{cite book|last=Hornblower|first=Simon|year=2002|orig-year=1983|title=The Greek World, 479–323 BC|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-16326-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvtyijSRcKUC}}
*{{cite book|last=King|first=Carol J.|chapter=Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=373–391|location=Oxford, Chichester, & Malden|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.M.|last2=Boardman|first2=John|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The Fourth Century B.C. (Volume 6)|year=1994|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23348-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Schwahn | first = Walther |title = Sympoliteia | encyclopedia = [[Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft]] | volume = Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa-Symposion  | year = 1931 | at=col. 1171–1266 |language=de }}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Fox, Robin Lane. 2011. ''Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies In the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC-300 AD.'' Leiden: Brill.
*King, Carol J. 2018. ''Ancient Macedonia.'' New York: Routledge. 
*Roisman, Joseph, and Ian Worthington. 2010. ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia.'' Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

==External links==
{{EB1911 Poster|Macedonian Empire}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[https://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html Ancient Macedonia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183445/http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html |date=2016-03-03 }} at [http://www.livius.org Livius], by Jona Lendering
*{{YouTube|cuOxGMoHMMY|Twilight of the Polis and the rise of Macedon}} (''Philip, Demosthenes and the Fall of the Polis''). Yale University courses, [https://web.archive.org/web/20101106180914/http://oyc.yale.edu/classics/introduction-to-ancient-greek-history/content/sessions/session-24-twilight-of-the-polis-cont.-and Lecture 24]. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20101030014100/http://oyc.yale.edu/classics/introduction-to-ancient-greek-history/ ''Introduction to Ancient Greek History''])
*[http://www.ashmolean.org/exhibitions/current/?timing=current&id=57&exhibitionYear=2011 Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy], Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford

{{MacedonKings}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Greek Macedonia}}
{{Diadochi}}
{{Hellenistic colonies}}
{{Ancient Greek Wars}}
{{Ancient Roman Wars}}
{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}

[[Category:Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
[[Category:Ancient Macedonia]]
[[Category:Hellenistic Macedonia]]