View source for SS Ohioan (1914)

{{Short description|1914 cargo ship}}
{{redirect|USS Ohioan|other ships with a similar name|USS Ohio}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
|Ship image=[[File:SS Ohioan.jpg|300px|SS ''Ohioan'' as she appeared before her [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] service in [[World War I]]]]
|Ship caption= SS ''Ohioan'' as she appeared before her [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] service in [[World War I]]
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Ship name=SS ''Ohioan''
|Ship owner=[[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]]
|Ship registry=New York<ref name=NYT-SF_rocks>{{cite news | agency = [[Associated Press]] | title = San Francisco rocks trap New York ship |work=The New York Times | date = 9 October 1936 | page = 51 }}</ref>
|Ship route=
|Ship ordered=May 1912<ref name=Cochran-358>Cochran and Ginger, p. 358.</ref>
|Ship awarded=
|Ship builder=*[[Maryland Steel]]
*[[Sparrows Point, Maryland]]
|Ship original cost=$730,000<ref name=Cochran-365>Cochran and Ginger, p. 365.</ref>
|Ship yard number=133<ref name=Colton>{{cite web|last=Colton |first=Tim |url=http://www.shipbuildinghistory.com/history/shipyards/1major/inactive/bethsparrowspoint.htm |title=Bethlehem Steel Company, Sparrows Point MD |work=Shipbuildinghistory.com |publisher=The Colton Company |access-date=25 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008154823/http://www.shipbuildinghistory.com/history/shipyards/1major/inactive/bethsparrowspoint.htm |archive-date= 8 October 2008 }}</ref>
|Ship laid down=
|Ship launched=18 April 1914<ref name=Miramar />
|Ship sponsor=
|Ship completed=30 June 1914<ref name=Colton />
|Ship maiden voyage=
|Ship identification=US official number: 212314<ref name=Miramar>{{cite web | url =http://www.miramarshipindex.org.nz/ship/list?search_op=OR&IDNo=2212314| title =''Ohioan''| work = Miramar Ship Index | publisher = R.B.Haworth | access-date = 25 August 2008 }}</ref>
|Ship fate=Requisitioned by U.S. Navy
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header=title
|Ship country=United States 
|Ship flag={{USN flag|1919}}
|Ship name=USS ''Ohioan'' (ID-3280)
|Ship acquired=5 August 1918
|Ship commissioned=7 August 1918
|Ship decommissioned=6 October 1919
|Ship struck=
|Ship fate=Returned to American-Hawaiian
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header=title
|Ship name=SS ''Ohioan''
|Ship owner=[[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]]
|Ship route=
|Ship acquired=22 September 1919
|Ship fate=Grounded at San Francisco, October 1936
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Ship type=[[Cargo ship]]
|Ship tonnage={{GRT|6,649}}<ref name=Cochran-365 />
{{DWT|9,920|long}}<ref name=Cochran-365 />
|Ship length=*{{convert|407|ft|7|in|m|abbr=on}} ([[length between perpendiculars|LPP]])<ref name=Miramar />
*{{convert|428|ft|8|in|m|abbr=on}} ([[length overall|overall]])<ref name=DANFS />
|Ship beam={{convert|53|ft|8|in|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=DANFS>{{cite DANFS | author = Naval Historical Center | author-link = Naval Historical Center | title = Ohioan | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/o2/ohioan.htm | short = first }}</ref>
|Ship draft={{convert|29|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=DANFS />
|Ship depth=
|Ship hold depth=
|Ship propulsion=*oil-fired boilers<ref name=Cochran-357>Cochran and Ginger, p. 357.</ref>
*1 × [[quadruple expansion steam engine|quadruple-expansion]] [[steam engine]]<ref name=Miramar />
*1 × [[screw propeller]]<ref name=Cochran-357 />
|Ship speed={{convert|12|knots|km/h}}<ref name=DANFS />
|Ship capacity=Cargo: {{convert|438154|cuft}}<ref name=Cochran-365 />
|Ship crew=18 officers, 40 crewmen
|Ship notes=Sister ships: {{SS|Dakotan||2}}, {{SS|Montanan||2}}, {{SS|Pennsylvanian||2}}, {{SS|Minnesotan||2}}, {{SS|Washingtonian||2}}, {{SS|Panaman||2}}, {{SS|Iowan||2}}<ref name=Colton />
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Header caption=(as USS ''Ohioan'')
|Ship displacement=
|Ship troops=1,400<!-- simple calculation: 8,383 men / 6 trips --><ref name=Gleaves-258-59>Gleaves, pp. 258–59</ref>
|Ship capacity=
|Ship complement=70<ref name=DANFS />
|Ship armament=*1 × {{convert|5|in|mm|adj=on}} gun
*1 × {{convert|3|in|mm|adj=on}} gun<ref name=DANFS />
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

'''[[Steamboat|SS]] ''Ohioan''''' was a [[cargo ship]] built in 1914 for the [[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]]. During [[World War I]], she was taken over by the [[United States Navy]] and [[ship commissioning|commissioned]] as '''USS ''Ohioan'' (ID-3280)'''.

''Ohioan'' was built by the [[Maryland Steel Company]] as one of eight sister ships ordered by the American-Hawaiian Steamship Company for inter-coastal service cargo via the [[Panama Canal]]. When the canal was temporarily closed by [[landslide]]s in late 1915, ''Ohioan'' sailed via the [[Straits of Magellan]] until the canal reopened in mid 1916. During [[World War I]], USS ''Ohioan'' carried cargo, animals, and a limited number of passengers to France, and returned over 8,000 American troops after the [[Armistice with Germany|Armistice]], including the highly decorated American soldier [[Alvin York]]. After ''Ohioan''{{'}}s naval service ended in 1919, she was returned to her original owners.

''Ohioan''{{'}}s post-war career was relatively uneventful until 8 October 1936, when she ran aground near [[Seal Rock (San Francisco County, California)|Seal Rock]] at the [[Golden Gate]], the entrance to [[San Francisco Bay]]. Attempts to free the ship were unsuccessful and, because of the close proximity of the wreck to San Francisco, the grounded ''Ohioan'' drew large crowds to watch salvage operations. [[Angelo Joseph Rossi|Angelo J. Rossi]], the mayor of San Francisco, toured the wreck on 19 October. ''Ohioan''{{'}}s hulk caught fire in March 1937, and the wreck broke into two pieces in a storm in December. As late as 1939, some of ''Ohioan''{{'}}s rusty steel beams were still visible on the rocks.

== Design and construction ==
In May 1912, the [[American-Hawaiian Steamship Company]] placed an order with the [[Maryland Steel Company]] of [[Sparrows Point, Maryland]], for two new [[cargo ships]]—{{SS|Iowan||2}} and ''Ohioan''.<ref group=Note>[[Maryland Steel Company|Maryland Steel]] had built three ships—{{SS|Kentuckian||2}}, ''Georgian'', and ''Honolulan''—for American-Hawaiian in 1909 in what proved to be a satisfactory arrangement for both companies. In September 1911 and November 1912, American-Hawaiian placed an order for ''Ohioan''{{'}}s six older sister ships; {{SS|Minnesotan||2}}, {{SS|Dakotan||2}}, {{SS|Montanan||2}}, and {{SS|Pennsylvanian||2}} in the earlier order, {{SS|Washingtonian||2}} and {{SS|Panaman||2}} in the latter.</ref> The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8% profit for Maryland Steel, but with a maximum price of $640,000 per ship. Maryland Steel financed the construction with a credit plan which called for a 5% down payment in cash followed by nine monthly installments for the balance. The deal allowed for some of the nine installments to be converted into longer-term notes or mortgages. The final cost of ''Ohioan'', including financing costs, was $73.58 per [[deadweight tonnage|deadweight ton]], which came out to just under $730,000.<ref name=Cochran-358 />

''Ohioan'' (Maryland Steel yard no. 133)<ref name=Colton /> was the second ship built under the contract. She was [[ship naming and launching|launched]] on 24 January 1914,<ref name=Miramar /> and delivered to American-Hawaiian on 30 June.<ref name=Colton /> The ship was {{GRT|6,649|disp=long}},<ref name=Cochran-365 /> and was {{convert|407|ft|7|in|m}} in length ([[length between perpendiculars|between perpendiculars]]) and {{convert|53|ft|8|in|m}} [[beam (nautical)|abeam]].<ref name=Miramar /> She had a [[deadweight tonnage]] of {{DWT|9,920|long}},<ref name=Cochran-365 /> and her cargo holds, which had a storage capacity of {{convert|438154|cuft}},<ref name=Cochran-365 /> were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so that she could carry perishable products from the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]]—such as fresh produce from [[Southern California]] farms—to the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]].<ref name=LAT-california_cargo>{{cite news | title = California cargo of produce shipped to East |work=Los Angeles Times | date = 3 October 1914 | page = II–8 }}</ref> ''Ohioan'' had a single [[steam engine]] powered by oil-fired [[boiler]]s that drove a single [[screw propeller]] at a speed of {{convert|12|knots|km/h}}.<!-- speed --><ref name=Miramar /><ref name="Cochran-357"/><!--oil-fired, single screw -->

== Early career ==
When ''Ohioan'' began sailing for American-Hawaiian, the company shipped cargo from [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] ports via the [[Straits of Magellan]] to [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] ports and Hawaii, and vice versa.<ref group=Note>Prior to the 21 April 1914 [[United States occupation of Veracruz]], American-Hawaiian had used the Tehuantepec Route, but after the U.S. action, that route was closed by the [[Victoriano Huerta|Huerta]]-led Mexican government. Shipments on that Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports—[[Salina Cruz]], Oaxaca, for eastbound cargo, and [[Coatzacoalcos]], Veracruz, for westbound  cargo—and would traverse the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] on the [[Tehuantepec National Railway]]. See: Hovey, p. 78.</ref> Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and [[pineapple]] from Hawaii, but westbound cargoes were more general in nature.<ref name=Cochran-355-56>Cochran and Ginger, p. 355–56.</ref> Following the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August 1914, American-Hawaiian ships switched to take that route.<ref name=Cochran-360>Cochran and Ginger, p. 360.</ref>

As [[World War I]] continued in Europe and increased the demand for defense-related shipping, American-Hawaiian stopped its sugar service. ''Ohioan''{{'}}s specific activities during this time are not known. She may have been in the half of the American-Hawaiian fleet that was [[ship chartering|chartered]] for transatlantic service, or she may have been in the group of American-Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America, delivering coal, gasoline, and steel in exchange for coffee, [[nitrate]]s, cocoa, rubber, and [[manganese|manganese ore]].<ref name=Cochran-362>Cochran and Ginger, p. 362.</ref>

== World War I ==
[[File:Alvin York on USS Ohioan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sergeant [[Alvin York]] at his press conference held on board USS ''Ohioan'' upon arrival in New York, 22 May 1919]]
Unlike her surviving sister ships,<ref group=Note>{{SS|Washingtonian||2}} had been in a collision and sank in New York Harbor in January 1915.</ref> there is no evidence that ''Ohioan'' was ever [[ship chartering|chartered]] by the [[United States Army]];<ref group=Note>{{SS|Dakotan||2}}, {{SS|Montanan||2}}, {{SS|Pennsylvanian||2}}, {{SS|Minnesotan||2}}, {{SS|Panaman||2}}, and {{SS|Iowan||2}} had all been chartered by the U.S. Army and most carried cargo and horses in that duty. ''Montanan'' was torpedoed and sunk while in Army service in 1917.</ref> ''Ohioan''{{'}}s activities between the United States' declaration of war on [[German Empire|Germany]] in April 1917, and her acquisition by the [[United States Navy]] on 5 August 1918, are unknown. She was commissioned into the [[Naval Overseas Transportation Service]] (NOTS) two days later, under a [[ship chartering|loan charter]]. After a refit and taking on a load of cargo, ''Ohioan'' sailed for [[Saint-Nazaire]], France, where she arrived on 29 August. Dividing the next month between that port and [[Brest, France|Brest]], ''Ohioan'' sailed for New York on 1 October.<ref name=DANFS /> Fitted there with horse stalls, she loaded 60 officers and men,<ref>Crowell and Wilson, p. 562.</ref> and equestrian and general cargo, before sailing on 1 November for [[La Pallice (harbour)|La Pallice]].<ref name=DANFS />

With the signing of the [[Armistice with Germany|Armistice]] on 11 November the fighting came to an end, and the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately.<ref name=Gleaves-31>Gleaves, p. 31.</ref> Upon her return to the United States on 5 December, ''Ohioan'' was selected to become a [[Troopship|troop transport]] and transferred from the NOTS to the [[Cruiser and Transport Force]].<ref name=DANFS /> Before she could begin returning troops, ''Ohioan'' had to be converted from a cargo and animal ship. Although sources do not indicate the specific modifications ''Ohioan'' underwent, typical conversions for other ships included the installation of berths, and adding greatly expanded cooking and toilet facilities to handle the large numbers of men aboard.<ref>Crowell and Wilson, p. 316.</ref> Similar modifications on ''Ohioan''{{'}}s sister ship {{USS|Minnesotan|ID-4545|2}} took three months,<ref name=DANFS-Minn>{{cite DANFS | author = Naval Historical Center | author-link = Naval Historical Center | title = Minnesotan | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m11/minnesotan.htm | short = on }}</ref> but it is not known how long ''Ohioan''{{'}}s refit took.

In March, ''Ohioan'' returned 1,627 men to New York, mostly from the 348th Infantry Regiment of the [[87th Infantry Division (United States)|U.S. 87th Infantry Division]],<ref>{{cite news | url = https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/03/12/97084618.pdf | title = More 27th troops return from front | work = The New York Times | date = 12 March 1919 | access-date = 25 August 2008 | page = 8 }}</ref> followed by another 1,596&nbsp;officers and men, and 1,000&nbsp;[[homing pigeon]]s on 16 April. Among the pigeons was [[Cher Ami]]—the only bird sent out by the [[Lost Battalion (World War I)|Lost Battalion]] that was able to get a message through—and 100 captured German pigeons.<ref name=NYT-6000_arrive>{{cite news | url = https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/04/17/118144985.pdf | title = 6,000 arrive from France | work = The New York Times | date = 17 April 1919 | access-date = 25 August 2008 | page = 6 }}</ref> Cher Ami had received the French [[Croix de Guerre|Croix de Guerre with Palm]] and had been recommended for the U.S. Army [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]] by General [[John J. Pershing]].<ref><!-- Croix de Guerre -->{{cite web | url = http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmah/cherami.htm | title = Cher Ami—World War I Carrier Pigeon | publisher = [[National Museum of American History]], [[Smithsonian Institution]] | access-date = 25 August 2008 }}</ref><ref><!--DSC nom-->{{cite news | last = Julian | first = C. V. | title = Chicago pigeon, hero of victory, to get medal | work = [[Chicago Tribune|Chicago Daily Tribune]] | date = 17 April 1919 | page = 1 }}</ref>

[[Image:US Soldiers on deck of USS Ohioan, 1919.jpg|thumb|U.S. soldiers crowd the deck during their return home on USS ''Ohioan'']]
''Ohioan'' docked at New York on 22 May on her next voyage with a portion of the [[328th Infantry Regiment (United States)|328th Infantry Regiment]] of the [[82nd Infantry Division (United States)|82nd Division]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Hero of heroes is back |work=The Washington Post  | date = 24 May 1919 | page = 2 }}</ref> One of the members of the unit was Sergeant [[Alvin C. York]], who had led an attack on a German machine gun nest during the [[Meuse-Argonne Offensive]] and captured 132&nbsp;German officers and men.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/worldwari.html | title = York, Alvin C | work = Medal of Honor Recipients&nbsp;– World War I | publisher = U.S. Army Center of Military History | access-date = 25 August 2008 | archive-date = 18 October 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081018140904/http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/worldwari.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> York had been honored with the U.S. [[Medal of Honor]] and the French Croix de Guerre with Palm (among other awards), both of which he wore on his coat on arrival at New York.<ref>{{cite news | title = Sergeant York, Argonne marvel, back from war | work = Chicago Daily Tribune | date = 23 May 1919 }}</ref> After ''Ohioan'' docked, York held a well-attended press conference on board.<ref>Lee, p. 34.</ref>

On 20 June, ''Ohioan'' returned another load of troops that included Base Hospital 98,<ref>{{cite news | title = The friend of the soldier | work = Chicago Daily Tribune | date = 17 June 1919 | page = 8 }}</ref> and the 20th Engineers.<ref>{{cite news | title = The friend of the soldier | work = Chicago Daily Tribune | date = 1 July 1919 | page = 8 }}</ref> By the time ''Ohioan'' had completed her sixth and final trooping voyage on 16 September 1919, ''Ohioan'' had carried home 8,383 healthy and wounded men.<ref name=Gleaves-258-59 /> USS ''Ohioan'' was decommissioned on 6 October 1919, and returned to American-Hawaiian.<ref name=DANFS />

== Later career ==
''Ohioan'' resumed cargo service with American-Hawaiian after her return from World War I service. Although the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by that time,<ref>Cochran and Ginger, p. 363</ref> ''Ohioan'' continued inter-coastal service through the Panama Canal relatively uneventfully for the next 17&nbsp;years. On 23 November 1933, ''Ohioan'' collided with {{ship|USAT|Liberty||2}} in the [[Ambrose Channel]]. She was consequently beached near the [[West Bank Light]].<ref name=Times241133>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Two American steamers in collision |date=24 November 1933 |page=25 |issue=46610 |column=D }}</ref> ''Ohioan'' was refloated on 26 November.<ref name=Times281133>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Casualty reports |date=28 November 1933 |page=24 |issue=46613 |column=C }}</ref>

In early morning hours of 8 October 1936, ''Ohioan'' ran aground near [[Seal Rock (San Francisco County, California)|Seal Rock]] on the south shore of the [[Golden Gate]], just outside [[San Francisco Bay]]. The ship, sailing in a dense fog, strayed too close to shore and grounded on the rocks,<ref name=NYT-SF_rocks /> sending a shower of sparks that lit up the night.<ref>Sprout and Sprout, p. 54.</ref> When the fog cleared later in the morning, the ship was firmly seated on the rocks at the base of a {{convert|250|ft|m|adj=on}} cliff, and some {{convert|300|ft|m}} from the mainland. [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guardsmen]] on shore attached three lines to the ship and set up a [[breeches buoy]] to take off the [[harbor pilot]], but the crew stayed on board the ship in hopes that the high tide would free her from the rocky perch. As word of the shipwreck spread, spectators clambered over the cliff to get a view of the scene; one man died from a heart attack and two women broke ankles in separate falls. Newsboys soon arrived on the scene, selling newspapers telling of ''Ohioan''{{'}}s woe within sight of the stranded ship. Policemen were called out to keep order as the crowd grew into the thousands.<ref name=NYT-SF_rocks />

The next day, as the seas battered the ship and drove her farther on the rocks, two Coast Guard boats took 31 men from the ship.<ref group=Note>Three officers and two cooks remained on board ''Ohioan'' to prevent a completely abandoned ship from becoming a salvage prize.</ref> American-Hawaiian announced that a Los Angeles salvage firm had been hired to retrieve the {{convert|1500|LT|t|-1|adj=on}} cargo,<ref name=NYT-31_saved>{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = 31 saved off ship as crowds watch  | work = The New York Times | date = 10 October 1936 | page = 19 }}</ref> which included explosives and oil.<ref name=WP-flames_menace>{{cite news | title = Flames menace explosives | work = The Washington Post | date = 7 March 1937 | page = 13 }}</ref> Two heavy-duty electric pumps were lowered to the ship via the breeches buoy, and plans were drawn up for connecting them to the San Francisco municipal electric system in order to pump out the ship.<ref name=NYT-31_saved />

[[Image:OceanbeachSF.JPG|thumb|left|300px|''Ohioan'' ran aground near [[Seal Rock (San Francisco County, California)|Seal Rock]] (''left'').]]
The crowds of onlookers continued to watch as salvage efforts progressed; a 75-year-old woman from [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] fell down the embankment while watching the action on 13 October.<ref>{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = Woman viewing ship salvaging injured | work = Los Angeles Times | date = 14 October 1936 | page = 12 }}</ref> The mayor of San Francisco, [[Angelo Joseph Rossi|Angelo J. Rossi]], rode the breeches buoy to the ship and toured it for 45 minutes on 19 October.<ref>{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = Bay City mayor visits stranded ship | work = Los Angeles Times | date = 19 October 1936 | page = 3 }}</ref> On 22 October, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' ran an [[Associated Press]] story saying that marine experts were considering the use of a method first patented by [[Abraham Lincoln]] in May 1849 in order to re-float the stranded ship.<ref>{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = Lincoln's old patent found | work = Los Angeles Times | date = 22 October 1936 | page = 10 }}</ref><ref group=Note>The patent, No. 6469, dated 22 May 1849, was entitled "Buoying vessels over shoals".</ref> All efforts were unsuccessful, and by 31 October, American-Hawaiian placed an advertisement in the ''Los Angeles Times'' requesting bids for the purchase of the ship and her cargo "as and where she now lies ... on the rocks near Point Lobos, San Francisco".<ref>{{cite news | title = For Sale: S. S. "Ohioan" and Cargo.. | type = display advertisement | work = Los Angeles Times | date = 31 October 1936 | page = 6 }}</ref> E. J. Mitchell was the winning bidder, securing rights to the ship and its cargo for $2,800.<ref name=WP-flames_menace />

In March 1937, five months after the wreck, the hulk of ''Ohioan''—still aground near Seal Rock—caught fire when a watchman aboard the ship attempted to burn some meat in a refrigerator. The flames died out before reaching the explosives that remained aboard the wreck.<ref>{{cite news | title = Grounded for five months .. | work = The Washington Post | date = 8 March 1937 | page = 5 }}</ref> A Pacific storm in December the same year caused the hulk of ''Ohioan'' to break in two.<ref>{{cite news | title = Havoc wrought by storms, east and west | work = Chicago Daily Tribune | date = 12 December 1937 | page = 2 }}</ref> By 1939, only remnants of some of ''Ohioan''{{'}}s rusty steel beams were still visible on the rocks.<ref>Riesenberg, p. 216.</ref>

Author Mark Ellis Thomas suggests that English poet and novelist [[Malcolm Lowry]] may have been inspired by the wreck of ''Ohioan'' in his poem "In Tempest's Tavern". One excerpt from the poem refers to "The ''Ohio'' {{sic}} smoking in Frisco on a sharp pen / Of rock". At the time of ''Ohioan''{{'}}s grounding, Lowry was in San Diego, preparing to sail to [[Acapulco]].<ref>Thomas, p. 233.</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=Note|2}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal | last = Cochran | first = Thomas C. | author-link = Thomas C. Cochran (historian) |author2=Ray Ginger |author2-link=Ray Ginger | title = The American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, 1899–1919 | journal = The Business History Review | volume = 28 | issue = 4 |date=December 1954 | pages = 343–365 | location = Boston | publisher = The President and Fellows of Harvard College | issn = 0007-6805 | oclc = 216113867 | doi = 10.2307/3111801 | jstor = 3111801 }}
* {{cite book | last = Crowell  | first = Benedict  | author-link = Benedict Crowell |author2=Robert Forrest Wilson | title = The Road to France: The Transportation of Troops and Military Supplies, 1917–1918 | url = https://archive.org/details/roadtofrancetra04wilsgoog  | series = How America Went to War: An Account From Official Sources of the Nation's War Activities, 1917–1920 | location = [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | year = 1921 | oclc = 18696066 }}
* {{Gleaves}}
* {{cite journal | last = Hovey | first = Edmund Otis | title = The Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Tehuantepec National Railway | journal = Bulletin of the American Geographical Society | volume = 39 | issue = 2 | year = 1907 | pages = 78–91 | location = New York | publisher = [[American Geographical Society]] | issn = 0190-5929 | oclc = 2097765 | doi = 10.2307/198380 | jstor = 198380 }}
* {{cite book | last = Lee | first = David D. | title = Sergeant York: An American Hero | location = [[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]] | publisher = [[University Press of Kentucky]] | year = 1985 | isbn = 978-0-8131-1517-7 | oclc = 10779862 }}
* {{cite DANFS | author = Naval Historical Center | author-link = Naval Historical Center | title = Minnesotan | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m11/minnesotan.htm | access-date=25 August 2008}}
* {{cite DANFS | author = Naval Historical Center  | title = Ohioan | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/o2/ohioan.htm | access-date=25 August 2008 | link=off}}
* {{cite book | last = Riesenberg | first = Felix | title = Golden Gate: The Story of San Francisco Harbor | location = New York | publisher = Tudor Pub. Co. | orig-year=1940|year=1945|oclc=19356199}}
* {{cite book | last = Sprout | first =Jerry|author2=Janine Sprout|title=Golden Gate Trailblazer: Where to Hike, Stroll, Bike, Jog, Roll in San Francisco and Marin|location=Markleeville, California|publisher=Diamond Valley Co.|year=2001|isbn=978-0-9670072-2-9|oclc = 47856075}}
* {{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Mark Ellis | editor = Sherrill Grace | title = Swinging the Maelstrom: New Perspectives on Malcolm Lowry | chapter = Under the Shadow of the ''Volcano''; Malcolm Lowry's Poetry | location = [[Montreal]] | publisher = McGill-Queen's University Press | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-7735-0862-0 | oclc = 28547699 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/swingingmaelstro0000unse }}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|SS Ohioan (1914).ogg|date=2009-01-23}}
{{Commons category|Ohioan (ship, 1914)}}
* {{navsource|12/173280|Ohioan}}
* "[http://sflib1.sfpl.org:82/search/a?searchtype=X&searcharg=%22Ohioan%22+&SORT=D&x=25&y=16 Images of the Ohioan]" from San Francisco Public Library's photo database
* "[http://www.cliffhouseproject.com/history/Ohioan/ohioan.htm Wreck of the Ohioan]" from the Cliff House Project, with several images of ''Ohioan'' while aground
{{Coord|37|46|43|N|122|30|58|W|type:landmark_region:US-CA|display=title}}

{{1933 shipwrecks}}
{{1936 shipwrecks}}
{{1937 shipwrecks}}
{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ohioan}}
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1933]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1936]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1937]]
[[Category:Ships built in Sparrows Point, Maryland]]
[[Category:Shipwrecks of the California coast]]
[[Category:World War I auxiliary ships of the United States]]
[[Category:World War I merchant ships of the United States]]
[[Category:1914 ships]]
[[Category:Cargo ships of the United States Navy]]