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Image depicting temporal, spatial and personal deixis, including a deictic center

In linguistics, deixis (/ˈdaɪksɪs/, /ˈdeɪksɪs/)^[1] is the use of words or phrases to refer to a particular time (e.g. then), place (e.g. here), or person (e.g. you) relative to the context of the utterance.^[2] Deixis exists in all known natural languages^[3]^[4] and is closely related to anaphora, with a sometimes unclear distinction between the two.^[5] In linguistic anthropology, deixis is seen as the same as, or a subclass of, indexicality.^[6]

The term's origin is Ancient Greek: δεῖξις, romanized: deixis, lit. 'display, demonstration, or reference'. To this, Chrysippus (c. 279 – c. 206 BCE) added the specialized meaning point of reference, which is the sense in which the term is used in contemporary linguistics.^[7]

Types

There are three main types of deictic words, as described by Charles J. Fillmore: personal, spatial, and temporal.^[8] In some languages, these may overlap, such as spatial and personal deixis in many signed pronouns.^[9]^[10] Some linguists consider social deixis to be a fourth type.^[11]

Personal

Personal deictic words, called personal pronouns in English, refer to the grammatical persons involved in an utterance. These can include the first person (speaker), second person (addressee), third, and in some languages fourth and fifth person.^[12]^[13] Personal deixis may give further information about the referent, such as gender. Examples of personal deixis include:^{[citation needed]}

I am going to the cinema.

Would you like to have dinner?

They tried to hurt me, but she helped me.

Spatial

Spatial, or place, deixis is used to refer to spatial locations relative to an utterance. Similarly to personal deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to. Spatial demonstratives include locative adverbs (e.g. here and there) and demonstratives (e.g. this, these, that, and those) although those are far from exclusive.^[8] Spatial demonstratives are often relative to the location of the speaker^[14] such as:

The shop is across the street.

where "across the street" is understood to mean "across the street from where I [the speaker] am right now."^[8]

Words relating to spatial deixis can be proximal (near, such as English [right] here or this), medial (near the addressee, such as English [over] there or that), distal (far, such as English [out] there or that), far-distal (far from both the speaker and addressee, such as archaic English yon and yonder).^[15] The Malagasy language has seven degrees of distance combined with two degrees of visibility, while many Inuit languages have even more complex systems.^[16]

Temporal

Temporal, or time, deixis is used to refer to time relevant to the utterance. This includes temporal adverbs (e.g. then and soon), nouns (e.g. tomorrow) and use of grammatical tense.^[17] Temporal deixis can can be relative to the time when an utterance is made (the speaker’s "now") or the time when the utterance is heard or seen (the addressee’s "now").^{[citation needed]} Although these are often the same time, they can differ in cases such as a voice recording or written text. For example:

It is raining now, but I hope when you read this it will be sunny.

Tenses are usually separated into absolute (deictic) and relative tenses. For example, simple English past tense is absolute, such as "He went." whereas the pluperfect is relative to some other deictically specified time, as in "When I got home, he had gone."^[18]

Discourse deixis

Discourse deixis, also referred to as text deixis, refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contain the utterance—including the utterance itself. For example, in "This is a great story." this refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse.^[19]

Switch reference is a type of discourse deixis, and a grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages, this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers. In the translated example "John punched Tom, and left-[same subject marker]," it is John who left, and in "John punched Tom, and left-[different subject marker]," it is Tom who left.^[20]

Discourse deixis has been observed in internet language, particularly with the use of iconic language forms resembling arrows.^[21]

Social deixis

Social deixis concerns the social information that is encoded within various expressions, such as relative social status and familiarity. These include T–V distinctions^[22] and honorifics.

Deictic center

A deictic center, sometimes referred to as an origo, is a set of theoretical points that a deictic expression is 'anchored' to, such that the evaluation of the meaning of the expression leads one to the relevant point. As deictic expressions are frequently egocentric, the center often consists of the speaker at the time and place of the utterance and, additionally, the place in the discourse and relevant social factors. However, deictic expressions can also be used in such a way that the deictic center is transferred to other participants in the exchange or to persons / places / etc. being described in a narrative.^[23] So, for example, in the sentence;

I am standing here now.

the deictic center is simply the person at the time and place of speaking. But say two people are talking on the phone long-distance, from London to New York. The Londoner can say,

We are leaving [London] next week.

in which case the deictic center is in London, or they can equally validly say,

We are coming [to New York] next week.

in which case the deictic center is in New York.^[3] Similarly, when telling a story about someone, the deictic center is likely to switch to him, her or they (third-person pronouns). So then in the sentence;

He then ran twenty feet to the left.

it is understood that the center is with the person being spoken of, and thus, "to the left" refers not to the speaker's left, but to the object of the story's left, that is, the person referred to as 'he' at the time immediately before he ran twenty feet.

Usages

It is helpful to distinguish between two usages of deixis, gestural and symbolic, as well as non-deictic usages of frequently deictic words. Gestural deixis refers, broadly, to deictic expressions whose understanding requires some sort of audio-visual information. A simple example is when an object is pointed at and referred to as "this" or "that". However, the category can include other types of information than pointing, such as direction of gaze, tone of voice, and so on. Symbolic usage, by contrast, requires generally only basic spatio-temporal knowledge of the utterance.^[23] So, for example

I broke this finger.

requires being able to see which finger is being held up, whereas

I love this city.

requires only knowledge of the current location. In a similar vein,

I went to this city one time ...

is a non-deictic usage of "this", which does not identify anywhere specifically. Rather, it is used as an indefinite article, much the way "a" could be used in its place.

Distinction with similar terms

The distinction between deixis and anaphora is unclearly defined.^[5] Generally, an anaphoric reference refers to something within a text that has been previously identified.^[23] For example, in "Susan dropped the plate. It shattered loudly," the word it refers to the phrase, "the plate". An expression can be both deictic and anaphoric at the same time, for example "I was born in London, and I have lived here/there all my life." here or there function anaphorically in their reference to London, and deictically in that the choice between "here" or "there" indicates whether the speaker is or is not currently in London.^[3]

The terms deixis and indexicality are frequently used almost interchangeably, and both deal with essentially the same idea of contextually-dependent references. However, the two terms have different histories and traditions. In the past, deixis was associated specifically with spatiotemporal reference, and indexicality was used more broadly.^[24] More importantly, each is associated with a different field of study. Deixis is associated with linguistics, and indexicality is associated with philosophy^[25] as well as pragmatics.^[26]

Notes

References

^ Oxford English Dictionary 3rd Ed. (2003)
^ Hanks, William F. (2009-01-01). "Fieldwork on deixis". Journal of Pragmatics. Towards an Emancipatory Pragmatics. 41 (1): 10–24. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2008.09.003. ISSN 0378-2166.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lyons, John (1977) "Deixis, space and time" in Semantics, Vol. 2, pp. 636–724. Cambridge University Press.
^ "Deixis – a pragmatic universal? Barbara Kryk", Toward a Typology of European Languages, De Gruyter Mouton, 2011-04-20, pp. 49–62, doi:10.1515/9783110863178.49, ISBN 978-3-11-086317-8, retrieved 2024-06-06
^ ^a ^b Schiffrin, Deborah (1990-01-01). "Between text and context: Deixis, anaphora, and the meaning of then". Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse. 10 (3): 245–270. doi:10.1515/text.1.1990.10.3.245. ISSN 1860-7349.
^ Nunberg, Geoffrey (1993). "Indexicality and Deixis". Linguistics and Philosophy. 16 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1007/BF00984721. ISSN 0165-0157. JSTOR 25001498.
^ S. E. M VIII.96; see The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, 2003, p. 89.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fillmore, Charles J (1971) Lectures on Deixis. CSLI Publications (reprinted 1997).
^ Berenz, Norine (2002-01-01). "Insights into person deixis". Sign Language & Linguistics. 5 (2): 203–227. doi:10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber. ISSN 1387-9316.
^ Cormier, Kearsy; Schembri, Adam; Woll, Bencie (2013-12-01). "Pronouns and pointing in sign languages". Lingua. 137: 230–247. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2013.09.010. ISSN 0024-3841.
^ Stapleton, Andreea (2017-01-01). "Deixis in Modern Linguistics". Essex Student Journal. 9 (1). doi:10.5526/esj23. ISSN 2633-7045.
^ Charney, Rosalind (2008-09-26). "Speech roles and the development of personal pronouns". Journal of Child Language. 7 (3): 509–528. doi:10.1017/S0305000900002816. ISSN 1469-7602. PMID 7440674.
^ Fleck, David W. (2008-07-01). "Coreferential Fourth-Person Pronouns in Matses". International Journal of American Linguistics. 74 (3): 279–311. doi:10.1086/590084. ISSN 0020-7071.
^ Kennedy, David (February 2012). "Here Is/Where There/Is: Some Observations of Spatial Deixis in Robert Creeley's Poetry". Journal of American Studies. 46 (1): 73–87. doi:10.1017/S0021875811000053. ISSN 1469-5154.
^ Lander, Eric; Haegeman, Liliane (2016-09-30). "The Nanosyntax of Spatial Deixis". Studia Linguistica. 72 (2): 362–427. doi:10.1111/stul.12061. hdl:1854/LU-8166998. ISSN 0039-3193.
^ Denny, J. Peter (October 1982). "J. Peter Denny, "Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) Spatial Deictics"". International Journal of American Linguistics. 48 (4): 359–384. doi:10.1086/465747. S2CID 144418641.
^ Horn, Laurence; Ward, Gergory (2004-02-23). "Chapter five: Deixis". Handbook of Pragmatics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-22547-8.
^ Vandelanotte, Lieven (2004-03-01). "Deixis and grounding in speech and thought representation". Journal of Pragmatics. 36 (3): 489–520. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.003. ISSN 0378-2166.
^ Webber, Bonnie Lynn (June 1988). "Discourse Deixis: Reference to Discourse Segments". 26th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Buffalo, New York, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics: 113–122. doi:10.3115/982023.982037.
^ Givón, T. (1983), "Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference", Switch Reference and Universal Grammar, Typological Studies in Language, vol. 2, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 51, doi:10.1075/tsl.2.06giv, ISBN 978-9027228666
^ Collister, Lauren B. (March 2012). "The discourse deictics ∧ and ← in a World of Warcraft community" (PDF). Discourse, Context & Media. 1 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1016/j.dcm.2012.05.002.
^ Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell Publishing.
^ ^a ^b ^c Levinson, Stephen C. "Deixis" in Pragmatics. pp. 54–96.
^ Silverstein, Michael. (1976) "Shifters, linguistic categories, and cultural description". In K. Basso and H. Selby (eds.), Meaning in Anthropology. SAR p. 25.
^ Levinson, Stephen C. (2006) "Deixis". In Laurence R. Horn, Gregory L. Ward (eds.) The Handbook of Pragmatics, pp. 978–120. Blackwell Publishing.
^ Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2018). "Which view of indirect reports do Persian data corroborate?" International Review of Pragmatics, 10(1), 76–100.

External links

[1] Oxford English Dictionary 3rd Ed. (2003)

[2] Hanks, William F. (2009-01-01). "Fieldwork on deixis". Journal of Pragmatics. Towards an Emancipatory Pragmatics. 41 (1): 10–24. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2008.09.003. ISSN 0378-2166.

[Lyons-3] Lyons, John (1977) "Deixis, space and time" in Semantics, Vol. 2, pp. 636–724. Cambridge University Press.

[4] "Deixis – a pragmatic universal? Barbara Kryk", Toward a Typology of European Languages, De Gruyter Mouton, 2011-04-20, pp. 49–62, doi:10.1515/9783110863178.49, ISBN 978-3-11-086317-8, retrieved 2024-06-06

[:1-5] Schiffrin, Deborah (1990-01-01). "Between text and context: Deixis, anaphora, and the meaning of then". Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse. 10 (3): 245–270. doi:10.1515/text.1.1990.10.3.245. ISSN 1860-7349.

[6] Nunberg, Geoffrey (1993). "Indexicality and Deixis". Linguistics and Philosophy. 16 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1007/BF00984721. ISSN 0165-0157. JSTOR 25001498.

[7] S. E. M VIII.96; see The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics, 2003, p. 89.

[Fillmore-8] Fillmore, Charles J (1971) Lectures on Deixis. CSLI Publications (reprinted 1997).

[9] Berenz, Norine (2002-01-01). "Insights into person deixis". Sign Language & Linguistics. 5 (2): 203–227. doi:10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber. ISSN 1387-9316.

[10] Cormier, Kearsy; Schembri, Adam; Woll, Bencie (2013-12-01). "Pronouns and pointing in sign languages". Lingua. 137: 230–247. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2013.09.010. ISSN 0024-3841.

[11] Stapleton, Andreea (2017-01-01). "Deixis in Modern Linguistics". Essex Student Journal. 9 (1). doi:10.5526/esj23. ISSN 2633-7045.

[12] Charney, Rosalind (2008-09-26). "Speech roles and the development of personal pronouns". Journal of Child Language. 7 (3): 509–528. doi:10.1017/S0305000900002816. ISSN 1469-7602. PMID 7440674.

[13] Fleck, David W. (2008-07-01). "Coreferential Fourth-Person Pronouns in Matses". International Journal of American Linguistics. 74 (3): 279–311. doi:10.1086/590084. ISSN 0020-7071.

[14] Kennedy, David (February 2012). "Here Is/Where There/Is: Some Observations of Spatial Deixis in Robert Creeley's Poetry". Journal of American Studies. 46 (1): 73–87. doi:10.1017/S0021875811000053. ISSN 1469-5154.

[15] Lander, Eric; Haegeman, Liliane (2016-09-30). "The Nanosyntax of Spatial Deixis". Studia Linguistica. 72 (2): 362–427. doi:10.1111/stul.12061. hdl:1854/LU-8166998. ISSN 0039-3193.

[16] Denny, J. Peter (October 1982). "J. Peter Denny, "Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) Spatial Deictics"". International Journal of American Linguistics. 48 (4): 359–384. doi:10.1086/465747. S2CID 144418641.

[17] Horn, Laurence; Ward, Gergory (2004-02-23). "Chapter five: Deixis". Handbook of Pragmatics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-22547-8.

[18] Vandelanotte, Lieven (2004-03-01). "Deixis and grounding in speech and thought representation". Journal of Pragmatics. 36 (3): 489–520. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.003. ISSN 0378-2166.

[19] Webber, Bonnie Lynn (June 1988). "Discourse Deixis: Reference to Discourse Segments". 26th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Buffalo, New York, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics: 113–122. doi:10.3115/982023.982037.

[20] Givón, T. (1983), "Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference", Switch Reference and Universal Grammar, Typological Studies in Language, vol. 2, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 51, doi:10.1075/tsl.2.06giv, ISBN 978-9027228666

[21] Collister, Lauren B. (March 2012). "The discourse deictics ∧ and ← in a World of Warcraft community" (PDF). Discourse, Context & Media. 1 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1016/j.dcm.2012.05.002.

[Foley-22] Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell Publishing.

[Levinson1-23] Levinson, Stephen C. "Deixis" in Pragmatics. pp. 54–96.

[24] Silverstein, Michael. (1976) "Shifters, linguistic categories, and cultural description". In K. Basso and H. Selby (eds.), Meaning in Anthropology. SAR p. 25.

[:0-25] Levinson, Stephen C. (2006) "Deixis". In Laurence R. Horn, Gregory L. Ward (eds.) The Handbook of Pragmatics, pp. 978–120. Blackwell Publishing.

[26] Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2018). "Which view of indirect reports do Persian data corroborate?" International Review of Pragmatics, 10(1), 76–100.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Words requiring context to understand their meaning}}
-[[File:Deixis.png|thumb|400px|Person deixis, place deixis and time deixis in English]]
+[[File:Deixis.jpg|thumb|400px|Image depicting temporal, spatial and personal deixis, including a deictic center]]
-{{tone|section|date=July 2021}}
-In [[linguistics]], '''deixis''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|aɪ|k|s|ᵻ|s}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|eɪ|k|s|ᵻ|s}})<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' 3rd Ed. (2003)</ref> is the use of general words and phrases to refer to a specific time, place, or person in [[Context (language use)|context]], e.g., the words ''tomorrow'', ''there'', and ''they''. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denoted meaning varies depending on time and/or place. Words or phrases that require contextual information to be fully understood—for example, English [[pronouns]]—are deictic. Deixis is closely related to [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]]. Although this article<!-- This is self-referencing text--> deals primarily with deixis in spoken language, the concept is sometimes applied to written language, gestures, and communication media as well. In [[linguistic anthropology]], deixis is treated as a particular subclass of the more general [[semiotic]] phenomenon of [[indexicality]], a sign "pointing to" some aspect of its context of occurrence.
+In [[linguistics]], '''deixis''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|aɪ|k|s|ᵻ|s}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|eɪ|k|s|ᵻ|s}})<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' 3rd Ed. (2003)</ref> is the use of words or phrases to refer to a particular time (e.g. ''then''), place (e.g. ''here''), or person (e.g. ''you'') relative to the [[Context (language use)|context]] of the [[utterance]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanks |first=William F. |date=2009-01-01 |title=Fieldwork on deixis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378216608001975 |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |series=Towards an Emancipatory Pragmatics |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=10–24 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2008.09.003 |issn=0378-2166}}</ref> Deixis exists in all known natural languages<ref name="Lyons">Lyons, John (1977) "Deixis, space and time" in ''Semantics'', Vol. 2, pp. 636–724. Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>{{Citation |chapter=Deixis – a pragmatic universal? Barbara Kryk |date=2011-04-20 |pages=49–62 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110863178.49/pdf?licenseType=restricted |access-date=2024-06-06 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783110863178.49 |isbn=978-3-11-086317-8 |title=Toward a Typology of European Languages }}</ref> and is closely related to [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]], with a sometimes unclear distinction between the two.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Schiffrin |first=Deborah |date=1990-01-01 |title=Between text and context: Deixis, anaphora, and the meaning of then |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/text.1.1990.10.3.245/html |journal=Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=245–270 |doi=10.1515/text.1.1990.10.3.245 |issn=1860-7349}}</ref> In [[linguistic anthropology]], deixis is seen as the same as, or a subclass of, [[indexicality]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunberg |first=Geoffrey |date=1993 |title=Indexicality and Deixis |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25001498 |journal=Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1007/BF00984721 |jstor=25001498 |issn=0165-0157}}</ref>
-Although this article<!-- This is self-referencing text--> draws examples primarily from English, deixis is believed to be a feature (to some degree) of all natural languages.<ref name= Lyons>Lyons, John (1977) "Deixis, space and time" in ''Semantics'', Vol. 2, pp. 636–724. Cambridge University Press.</ref> The term's origin is {{lang-grc|[[wikt:en:δεῖξις#Ancient Greek|δεῖξις]]|deixis|display, demonstration, or reference}}. To this, [[Chrysippus]] (c. 279 – c. 206 BCE) added the specialized meaning ''point of reference'', which is the sense in which the term is used in contemporary linguistics.<ref>[[Sextus Empiricus|S. E.]] [[Adversus Mathematicos|''M'']] VIII.96; see ''The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics'', 2003, p. 89.</ref>
+The term's origin is {{langx|grc|[[wikt:en:δεῖξις#Ancient Greek|δεῖξις]]|deixis|display, demonstration, or reference}}. To this, [[Chrysippus]] ({{circa|279|206 BCE}}) added the specialized meaning ''point of reference'', which is the sense in which the term is used in contemporary linguistics.<ref>[[Sextus Empiricus|S. E.]] [[Adversus Mathematicos|''M'']] VIII.96; see ''The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics'', 2003, p. 89.</ref>
-== Types ==
+== Types ==
-===Traditional categories===
+There are three main types of deictic words, as described by [[Charles J. Fillmore]]: personal, spatial, and temporal.<ref name="Fillmore">Fillmore, Charles J (1971) ''Lectures on Deixis''. CSLI Publications (reprinted 1997).</ref> In some languages, these may overlap, such as spatial and personal deixis in many [[Sign language|signed]] pronouns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berenz |first=Norine |date=2002-01-01 |title=Insights into person deixis |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber |journal=Sign Language & Linguistics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=203–227 |doi=10.1075/sll.5.2.06ber |issn=1387-9316}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cormier |first1=Kearsy |last2=Schembri |first2=Adam |last3=Woll |first3=Bencie |date=2013-12-01 |title=Pronouns and pointing in sign languages |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024384113002167 |journal=Lingua |volume=137 |pages=230–247 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2013.09.010 |issn=0024-3841}}</ref> Some linguists consider social deixis to be a fourth type.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stapleton |first=Andreea |date=2017-01-01 |title=Deixis in Modern Linguistics |url=http://publications.essex.ac.uk/esj/article/id/23/ |journal=Essex Student Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.5526/esj23 |issn=2633-7045}}</ref>
-[[Charles J. Fillmore]] used the term "major grammaticalized types" to refer to the most common categories of contextual information: person, place, and time.<ref name= Fillmore>Fillmore, Charles J (1971) ''Lectures on Deixis''. CSLI Publications (reprinted 1997).</ref> Similar categorizations can be found elsewhere.<ref name=Senft2014>{{cite book |last=Senft |first=G. |date=2014 |title=Understanding Pragmatics |location=New York|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref name=Birner2013>{{cite book |last=Birner |first=B. J. |date=2013 |title=Introduction to pragmatics |location=Malden, MA |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell}}</ref>
-====Personal deixis====
+=== Personal ===
+{{Main|Pronouns}}
-Personal deixis, or person deixis, concerns itself with the [[grammatical person]]s involved in an utterance: (1) those directly involved (e.g. the speaker, the addressee), (2) those not directly involved (e.g. those who hear the utterance but who are not being directly addressed), and (3) those mentioned in the utterance.<ref name=Levinson1>Levinson, Stephen C. "Deixis" in Pragmatics. pp. 54–96.</ref> In English, the distinctions are generally indicated by pronouns (personal deictical terms are in ''italics''):
+Personal deictic words, called personal pronouns in English, refer to the [[grammatical person]]s involved in an utterance. These can include the first person (speaker), second person (addressee), third, and in some languages fourth and fifth person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charney |first=Rosalind |date=2008-09-26 |title=Speech roles and the development of personal pronouns |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language/article/abs/speech-roles-and-the-development-of-personal-pronouns/824188D7BECA4144C8CBD7A71D9FB2F1 |journal=Journal of Child Language |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=509–528 |doi=10.1017/S0305000900002816 |pmid=7440674 |issn=1469-7602}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=David W. |date=2008-07-01 |title=Coreferential Fourth-Person Pronouns in Matses |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/590084 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |language=en |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=279–311 |doi=10.1086/590084 |issn=0020-7071}}</ref> Personal deixis may give further information about the referent, such as [[gender]]. Examples of personal deixis include:{{cn|date=June 2024}}
-:''I'' am going to the movies.
+:''I'' am going to the cinema.
 :Would ''you'' like to have dinner?
-:''They'' tried to hurt ''me'', but ''she'' came to the rescue.
+:''They'' tried to hurt ''me'', but ''she'' helped me.
+=== Spatial ===
-In many languages with gendered pronouns, the third-person masculine pronouns (''he/his/him'' in English) are used as a default when referring to a person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant:
+Spatial, or place, deixis is used to refer to spatial locations relative to an utterance. Similarly to personal deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to. Spatial demonstratives include locative [[Adverb|adverbs]] (e.g. ''here'' and ''there)'' and [[Demonstrative|demonstratives]] (e.g. ''this'', ''these'', ''that'', and ''those)'' although those are far from exclusive.<ref name=" Fillmore" /> Spatial demonstratives are often relative to the location of the speaker<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=David |date=February 2012 |title=Here Is/Where There/Is: Some Observations of Spatial Deixis in Robert Creeley's Poetry |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-american-studies/article/abs/here-iswhere-thereis-some-observations-of-spatial-deixis-in-robert-creeleys-poetry/D3E0A0CE21F7925A88B1BC92A66351F0 |journal=Journal of American Studies |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=73–87 |doi=10.1017/S0021875811000053 |issn=1469-5154}}</ref> such as:
-:To each ''his'' own.
-In contrast, English for some time used the neuter gender for cases of unspecified gender in the singular (with the use of the plural starting in around the fourteenth century), but many grammarians drew on [[Latin]] to come to the preference for "he" in such cases. However, it remains common to use the third-person plural (''they/their/them/theirs'') even when the antecedent is singular (a phenomenon known as ''[[singular they]]''):
-:To each ''their'' own.
-In languages that distinguish between masculine and feminine plural pronouns, such as [[French (language)|French]] or [[Serbo-Croatian]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |year=2006 |orig-year=1st pub. 1997  |title=Serbo-Croatian |series=Languages of the World/Materials ; 148 |location=Munich & Newcastle |publisher=Lincom Europa |page=22 |isbn=3895861618 |oclc=37959860 |ol=2863538W}} [Grammar book]. [https://www.webcitation.org/6AE3FeWzm?url=http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/Contents_Serbo-Croatian_Grammar.pdf Contents]. [http://linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=23011 Summary].</ref> the masculine is again often used as default. "''Ils vont à la bibliothèque''", "''Oni idu u biblioteku''" (''They go to the library'') may refer either to a group of masculine nouns or a group of both masculine and feminine nouns. "''Elles vont...''", "''One idu...''" would be used only for a group of feminine nouns. In many such languages, the gender (as a grammatical category) of a noun is only tangentially related to the gender of the thing the noun represents. For example, in French, the generic ''personne'', meaning a person (of either sex), is always a feminine noun, so if the subject of discourse is "les personnes" (the people), the use of "elles" is obligatory, even if the people being considered are all men.
-====Spatial deixis====
-Spatial deixis, or place deixis, concerns itself with the spatial locations relevant to an utterance. Similarly to personal deixis, the locations may be either those of the speaker and addressee or those of persons or objects being referred to. The most salient English examples are the [[adverbs]] ''here'' and ''there,'' and the [[demonstratives]] ''this'', ''these'', ''that'', and ''those,'' although those are far from exclusive.<ref name=" Fillmore" />
-Some example sentences (spatial deictical terms are in ''italics''):
-:I enjoy living in ''this'' city.
-:''Here'' is where we will place the statue.
-:She was sitting over ''there''.
-Unless otherwise specified, spatial deictical terms are generally understood to be relative to the location of the speaker, as in:
 :The shop is ''across the street''.
-where "across the street" is understood to mean "across the street from where I [the speaker] am right now."<ref name="Fillmore" /> Although "here" and "there" are often used to refer to locations near to and far from the speaker, respectively, as in:
+where "across the street" is understood to mean "across the street from where I [the speaker] am right now."<ref name="Fillmore" />
-:''Here'' is a good spot; it is too sunny over ''there''.
-"there" can also refer to the location of the addressee, if they are not in the same location as the speaker, as in:
-:How is the weather ''there''?<ref name="Levinson1" />
-* '''Deictic projection''': In some contexts, spatial deixis is used metaphorically rather than physically, i.e. the speaker is not speaking as the deictic center. For example: I am ''coming'' home now.
-The above utterance would generally denote the speaker's ''going'' home from their own point of reference, yet it appears to be perfectly normal for one to project his physical presence to his home rather than away from home. Here is another example:
-I am not ''here''; please leave a message.
-Despite its common usage to address people who call when no one answers the phone, the ''here'' here is semantically contradictory to the speaker's absence. Nevertheless, this is considered normal for most people as speakers have to project themselves as answering the phone when in fact they are not physically present.
-Languages usually show at least a two-way referential distinction in their deictic system: proximal, i.e. near or closer to the speaker; and distal, i.e. far from the speaker and/or closer to the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]]. [[English language|English]] exemplifies this with such pairs as ''this'' and ''that'', ''here'' and ''there'', etc.
-In other languages, the distinction is three-way or higher: '''proximal''', i.e. near the speaker; '''medial''', i.e. near the addressee; and '''distal''', i.e. far from both. This is the case in a few [[Romance language]]s<ref group="note">In Classical Latin, the medial and distal forms are usually used as pejorative and laudative respectively.</ref> and in [[Serbo-Croatian]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |editor1-last=Berger |editor1-first=Tilman |editor2-last=Gutschmidt |editor2-first=Karl |title=Funktionale Beschreibung slavischer Sprachen: Beiträge zum XIII. Internationalen Slavistenkongress in Ljubljana |url-status=live |series=Slavolinguistica ; vol. 4 |publisher=Otto Sagner |page=115 |language=de |chapter=Ändert sich das serbokroatische System der Lokaladverbien? |trans-chapter=Are there changes in the Serbo-Croatian system of local adverbs? |chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/426608.ANDERT_SICH_DER_SERBOKR.PDF |location=Munich |year=2003 |isbn= 3876908442 |oclc=53376683 |ssrn=3434444 |id={{CROSBI|426608}} |archive-date=24 August 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6A9uF2w5c?url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/426608.ANDERT_SICH_DER_SERBOKR.PDF |access-date=30 December 2018}}</ref> [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Yaqui language|Yaqui]], and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. The archaic English forms ''yon'' and ''yonder'' (still preserved in some regional dialects) once represented a distal category that has now been subsumed by the formerly medial "there".<ref name="Lyons2">Lyons, Christopher. ''Definiteness''. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 111.</ref> In the [[Sinhala language]], there is a four-way deixis system for both person and place; near the speaker /me_ː/, near the addressee /o_ː/, close to a third person, visible /arə_ː/ and far from all, not visible /e_ː/.  The [[Malagasy language]] has seven degrees of distance combined with two degrees of visibility, while many Inuit languages have even more complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/465747?journalCode=ijal| title = J. Peter Denny, "Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) Spatial Deictics"| journal = International Journal of American Linguistics| date = October 1982| volume = 48| issue = 4| pages = 359–384| doi = 10.1086/465747| last1 = Denny| first1 = J. Peter| s2cid = 144418641}}</ref>
+Words relating to spatial deixis can be proximal (near, such as English [right] ''here'' or ''this''), medial (near the addressee, such as English [over] ''there'' or ''that''), distal (far, such as English [out] ''there'' or ''that''), far-distal (far from both the speaker and addressee, such as archaic English ''yon'' and ''[[wikt:yonder|yonder]]).''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lander |first1=Eric |last2=Haegeman |first2=Liliane |date=2016-09-30 |title=The Nanosyntax of Spatial Deixis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/stul.12061 |journal=Studia Linguistica |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=362–427 |doi=10.1111/stul.12061 |issn=0039-3193|hdl=1854/LU-8166998 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[Malagasy language]] has seven degrees of distance combined with two degrees of visibility, while many Inuit languages have even more complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal| url = http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/465747?journalCode=ijal| title = J. Peter Denny, "Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) Spatial Deictics"| journal = International Journal of American Linguistics| date = October 1982| volume = 48| issue = 4| pages = 359–384| doi = 10.1086/465747| last1 = Denny| first1 = J. Peter| s2cid = 144418641}}</ref>
-====Temporal deixis====
+=== Temporal ===
-Temporal deixis, or time deixis, concerns itself with the various times involved in and referred to in an utterance. This includes time [[adverbs]] like "now", "then", and "soon", as well as different verbal [[Grammatical tense|tenses]]. A further example is the word ''tomorrow'', which denotes the next consecutive day after any day it is used. "Tomorrow," when spoken on a day last year, denoted a different day from "tomorrow" when spoken next week. Time adverbs can be relative to the time when an utterance is made (what Fillmore calls the "encoding time", or ET) or the time when the utterance is heard (Fillmore's "decoding time", or DT).<ref name="Fillmore" />  Although these are frequently the same time, they can differ, as in the case of prerecorded broadcasts or correspondence. For example, if one were to write (temporal deictical terms are in ''italics''):
+Temporal, or time, deixis is used to refer to time relevant to the utterance. This includes temporal [[adverbs]] (e.g. ''then'' and ''soon''), [[Noun|nouns]] (e.g. ''tomorrow'') and use of [[grammatical tense]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Horn |first1=Laurence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlMPrAPo2-YC |title=Handbook of Pragmatics |last2=Ward |first2=Gergory |date=2004-02-23 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-22547-8 |language=en |chapter=Chapter five: Deixis}}</ref> Temporal deixis can can be relative to the time when an utterance is made (the speaker’s "now") or the time when the utterance is heard or seen (the addressee’s "now").{{cn|date=June 2024}} Although these are often the same time, they can differ in cases such as a voice recording or written text. For example:
 :It is raining ''now'', but I hope ''when'' you read this it will be sunny.
+Tenses are usually separated into [[Relative and absolute tense|absolute (deictic) and relative tenses]]. For example, simple English past tense is absolute, such as "He ''went."'' whereas the [[pluperfect]] is relative to some other deictically specified time, as in "When I got home, he ''had gone''."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vandelanotte |first=Lieven |date=2004-03-01 |title=Deixis and grounding in speech and thought representation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378216603001437 |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=489–520 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.003 |issn=0378-2166}}</ref>
-the ET and DT would be different, with "now" referring to the moment the sentence is written and "when" referring to the moment the sentence is read.
+=== Discourse deixis ===
-Tenses are generally separated into absolute (deictic) and relative tenses. So, for example, simple English past tense is absolute, such as in:
+Discourse deixis, also referred to as text deixis, refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contain the utterance—including the utterance itself. For example, in "''This'' is a great story." ''this'' refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Webber |first=Bonnie Lynn |date=June 1988 |title=Discourse Deixis: Reference to Discourse Segments |url=https://aclanthology.org/P88-1014 |journal=26th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics |location=Buffalo, New York, USA |publisher=Association for Computational Linguistics |pages=113–122 |doi=10.3115/982023.982037}}</ref>
+[[Switch reference]] is a type of discourse deixis, and a grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages, this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers. In the translated example "John punched Tom, and left-[same subject marker]," it is John who left, and in "John punched Tom, and left-[different subject marker]," it is Tom who left.<ref>{{Citation |last=Givón |first=T. |title=Switch Reference and Universal Grammar |date=1983 |volume=2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51 51] |series=Typological Studies in Language |chapter=Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |doi=10.1075/tsl.2.06giv |isbn=978-9027228666}}</ref>
-:He ''went''.
-whereas the [[pluperfect]] is relative to some other deictically specified time, as in:
-:He ''had gone''.
-===Other categories===
-Though the traditional categories of deixis are perhaps the most obvious, there are other types of deixis that are similarly pervasive in language use. These categories of deixis were first discussed by Fillmore and Lyons,<ref name="Levinson1" /> and were echoed in works of others.<ref name="Senft2014" /><ref name="Birner2013" />
-====Discourse deixis====
-Discourse deixis, also referred to as text deixis, refers to the use of expressions within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse that contain the utterance—including the utterance itself. For example, in:
-:''This'' is a great story.
-"this" refers to an upcoming portion of the discourse; and in:
-:''That'' was an amazing account.
-"that" refers to a prior portion of the discourse.
-Distinction must be made between discourse deixis and anaphora, which is when an expression makes reference to the same referent as a prior term, as in:
-:Matthew is an incredible athlete; ''he'' came in first in the race.
-In this case, "he" is not deictical because, within the above sentence, its denotative meaning of ''Matthew'' is maintained regardless of the speaker, where or when the sentence is used, etc.
-Lyons points out that it is possible for an expression to be both deictic and anaphoric at the same time. In his example:
-:I was born in London, and I have lived ''here/there'' all my life.
-"here" or "there" function anaphorically in their reference to London, and deictically in that the choice between "here" or "there" indicates whether the speaker is or is not currently in London.<ref name="Lyons" />
-The rule of thumb to distinguish the two phenomena is as follows: when an expression refers to a second linguistic expression or a piece of discourse, it is discourse deictic. When the former expression refers to the same item as does a prior linguistic expression, it is anaphoric.<ref name="Levinson1" />
-[[Switch reference]] is a type of discourse deixis, and a grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages, this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers. In the translated example "John punched Tom, and left-[same subject marker]," it is John who left, and in "John punched Tom, and left-[different subject marker]," it is Tom who left.<ref>{{Citation|last=Givón|first=T.|chapter=Topic continuity in discourse: The functional domain of switch-reference|date=1983|pages=[https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51 51]|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-9027228666|doi=10.1075/tsl.2.06giv|title=Switch Reference and Universal Grammar|volume=2|series=Typological Studies in Language|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/switchreferenceu0000symp/page/51}}</ref>
 Discourse deixis has been observed in [[Computer-mediated communication|internet language]], particularly with the use of [[Iconicity|iconic]] language forms resembling arrows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collister|first=Lauren B.|date=March 2012|title=The discourse deictics ∧ and ← in a World of Warcraft community|journal=Discourse, Context & Media|volume=1|issue=1|pages=9–19|doi=10.1016/j.dcm.2012.05.002|url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/17348/4/32312revision-collister-discoursecontextandmedia-arrowandcarat-titlepag.pdf}}</ref>
-====Social deixis====
+=== Social deixis ===
-Social deixis concerns the social information that is encoded within various expressions, such as relative social status and familiarity. Two major forms of it are the so-called T–V distinctions and honorifics.
+Social deixis concerns the social information that is encoded within various expressions, such as relative social status and familiarity. These include [[T–V distinction|T–V distinctions]]<ref name="Foley">Foley, William. 1997. ''Anthropological linguistics: An introduction''. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> and [[Honorific|honorifics]].
-* '''T–V distinction'''
-{{main|T–V distinction}}
-T–V distinctions, named for the Latin "tu" and "vos" (singular and plural versions of "you"), is the name given to the phenomenon when a language has at least two different second-person pronouns. The varying usage of these pronouns indicates something about formality, familiarity, and/or solidarity between the interactants. So, for example, the T form might be used when speaking to a friend or social equal, whereas the V form would be used speaking to a stranger or social superior. This phenomenon is common in European languages.<ref name=Foley>Foley, William. 1997. ''Anthropological linguistics: An introduction''. Blackwell Publishing.</ref>
-* '''Honorifics'''
-{{main|Honorifics (linguistics)}}
-Honorifics are a much more complex form of social deixis than T–V distinctions, though they encode similar types of social information. They can involve words being marked with various morphemes as well as nearly entirely different [[lexicon]]s being used based on the social status of the interactants. This type of social deixis is found in a variety of languages, but is especially common in South and East Asia.<ref name="Foley" /> Persian also makes wide use of honorifics.<ref>Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2006). Greetings forms in English and Persian: A sociopragmatic perspective. International Journal of Language, Culture, and Society, 17. online.</ref>
-=====Technology=====
-Technological deixis is a reference to the forms and purposes literacy takes as technology changes the nature of literacy in general (e.g., how one reads a webpage, navigates new software, etc.), how those literacies might be expressed, and the speed and efficiency with which those literacies might change (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, and Cammack, 2004; http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/RT/3-01_Column/index.html).
-===Anaphoric reference===
-{{main|Anaphora (linguistics)}}
-Generally speaking, ''anaphora'' refers to the way in which a word or phrase relates to other text:
-* An [[Exophora|exophoric reference]] refers to language outside of the text in which the reference is found.
-** A [[Homophora|homophoric reference]] is a generic phrase that obtains a specific meaning through knowledge of its context. For example, the meaning of the phrase ''"the Queen"'' may be determined by the country in which it is spoken. Because there may be many Queens throughout the world when the sentence is used, the location of the speaker<ref group=note>Or his nationality, or the language or country he's talking about, etc.: e.g. in the set phrase ''the Queen's English'' = "standard" British English, "the language variety the Queen of the United Kingdom speaks", or at least is supposed to speak, regardless of where the speaker is located. Similarly, in the mouth of a Briton, or in a text about the UK, ''the Queen'' would by default be assumed to mean the Queen of the United Kingdom.</ref> provides the extra information that allows an individual Queen to be identified.
-* An [[Endophora|endophoric reference]] refers to something inside of the text in which the reference is found.
-** An [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric reference]], when opposed to cataphora, refers to something within a text that has been previously identified. For example, in "Susan dropped the plate. ''It'' shattered loudly," the word ''it'' refers to the phrase, "the plate".
-** A [[Cataphora|cataphoric reference]] refers to something within a text that has not yet been identified. For example, in "Since ''he'' was very cold, David promptly put on his coat," the identity of ''he'' is unknown until the individual is also referred to as "David".
 ==Deictic center==
-A deictic center, sometimes referred to as an [[origo (pragmatics)|origo]], is a set of theoretical points that a deictic expression is 'anchored' to, such that the evaluation of the meaning of the expression leads one to the relevant point. As deictic expressions are frequently egocentric, the center often consists of the speaker at the time and place of the utterance and, additionally, the place in the discourse and relevant social factors. However, deictic expressions can also be used in such a way that the deictic center is transferred to other participants in the exchange or to persons / places / etc. being described in a narrative.<ref name="Levinson1" /> So, for example, in the sentence;
+A deictic center, sometimes referred to as an [[origo (pragmatics)|origo]], is a set of theoretical points that a deictic expression is 'anchored' to, such that the evaluation of the meaning of the expression leads one to the relevant point. As deictic expressions are frequently egocentric, the center often consists of the speaker at the time and place of the utterance and, additionally, the place in the discourse and relevant social factors. However, deictic expressions can also be used in such a way that the deictic center is transferred to other participants in the exchange or to persons / places / etc. being described in a narrative.<ref name="Levinson1">Levinson, Stephen C. "Deixis" in Pragmatics. pp. 54–96.</ref> So, for example, in the sentence;
 :I am standing here now.
-the deictic center is simply the person at the time and place of speaking. But say two people are talking on the phone long-distance, from London to New York. The Londoner can say;
+the deictic center is simply the person at the time and place of speaking. But say two people are talking on the phone long-distance, from London to New York. The Londoner can say,
-:We are going to London next week.
+:We are leaving [London] next week.
-in which case the deictic center is in London, or they can equally validly say;
+in which case the deictic center is in London, or they can equally validly say,
-:We are coming to New York next week.
+:We are coming [to New York] next week.
 in which case the deictic center is in New York.<ref name="Lyons" /> Similarly, when telling a story about someone, the deictic center is likely to switch to him, her or they (third-person pronouns). So then in the sentence;
@@ Line 163: / Line 77: @@
 is a non-deictic usage of "this", which does not identify anywhere specifically. Rather, it is used as an [[Article (grammar)|indefinite article]], much the way "a" could be used in its place.
+==Distinction with similar terms==
-==Deixis and indexicality==
+The distinction between deixis and [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphora]] is unclearly defined.<ref name=":1" /> Generally, an [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric reference]] refers to something within a text that has been previously identified.<ref name="Levinson1" /> For example, in "Susan dropped the plate. ''It'' shattered loudly," the word ''it'' refers to the phrase, "the plate". An expression can be both deictic and anaphoric at the same time, for example "I was born in London, and I have lived ''here/there'' all my life." ''here'' or ''there'' function anaphorically in their reference to London, and deictically in that the choice between "here" or "there" indicates whether the speaker is or is not currently in London.<ref name="Lyons" />
-The terms deixis and [[indexicality]] are frequently used almost interchangeably, and both deal with essentially the same idea of [[Context (language use)|context]]ually-dependent references. However, the two terms have different histories and traditions. In the past, deixis was associated specifically with spatiotemporal reference, and indexicality was used more broadly.<ref>Silverstein, Michael. (1976) "Shifters, linguistic categories, and cultural description". In K. Basso and H. Selby (eds.), ''Meaning in Anthropology''. SAR p. 25.</ref> More importantly, each is associated with a different field of study. Deixis is associated with linguistics, and indexicality is associated with philosophy<ref>Levinson, Stephen C. (2006) "Deixis". In Laurence R. Horn, Gregory L. Ward (eds.) ''The Handbook of Pragmatics'', pp. 978–120. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> as well as [[pragmatics]].<ref>Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2018). "Which view of indirect reports do Persian data corroborate?" ''International Review of Pragmatics'', 10(1), 76–100.</ref>
+The terms deixis and [[indexicality]] are frequently used almost interchangeably, and both deal with essentially the same idea of [[Context (language use)|context]]ually-dependent references. However, the two terms have different histories and traditions. In the past, deixis was associated specifically with spatiotemporal reference, and indexicality was used more broadly.<ref>Silverstein, Michael. (1976) "Shifters, linguistic categories, and cultural description". In K. Basso and H. Selby (eds.), ''Meaning in Anthropology''. SAR p. 25.</ref> More importantly, each is associated with a different field of study. Deixis is associated with linguistics, and indexicality is associated with philosophy<ref name=":0">Levinson, Stephen C. (2006) "Deixis". In Laurence R. Horn, Gregory L. Ward (eds.) ''The Handbook of Pragmatics'', pp. 978–120. Blackwell Publishing.</ref> as well as [[pragmatics]].<ref>Salmani Nodoushan, M. A. (2018). "Which view of indirect reports do Persian data corroborate?" ''International Review of Pragmatics'', 10(1), 76–100.</ref>
 == See also ==
+* [[Complementiser]]
-* [[Anaphora (linguistics)|Anaphora]]
 * [[Deictic field and narration]]
-* [[Demonstrative]]
+* [[Determiner]]
 * [[Generic antecedents]]
 * [[Metaphysics of presence]]
@@ Line 176: / Line 92: @@
 * [[Pro-form]]
 * [[Self]]
+* [[Terms of orientation]]
 ==Notes==
@@ Line 189: / Line 106: @@
 * Gaynesford, M. de ''I: The Meaning of the First Person Term'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.
 * [[George Grigore]], La deixis spatial dans l'arabe parlé à Bagdad, Estudios de dialectologia arabe n.7, Zaragoza, pp 77–90 [https://www.academia.edu/2538161/George_Grigore._2012._La_deixis_spatiale_dans_larabe_parle_a_Bagdad_Alexandrine_Barontini_Christophe_Pereira_Angeles_Vicente_Karima_Ziamari_ed._Estudios_de_dialectologia_arabe_n.7_Hommage_offert_a_Dominique_Caubet_._Universidad_de_Zaragoza._pp_77-90 George Grigore. 2012. "La deixis spatiale dans l’arabe parlé à Bagdad", Alexandrine Barontini, Christophe Pereira, Ángeles Vicente, Karima Ziamari (ed.), Estudios de dialectología árabe (n.7): Hommage offert à Dominique Caubet . Universidad de Zaragoza. pp: 77-90]
-* {{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |language=de |title=Wörter im Grenzbereich von Lexikon und Grammatik im Serbokroatischen |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Words on the Border Between Lexicon and Grammar |series=Studies in Slavic Linguistics ; 18 |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa |year=2001 |page=280 |isbn=3895869546 |lccn=2005530313 |oclc=47905097 |ol=2863539W}} [https://www.webcitation.org/6A80Mj8Bf?url=http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/Summary_Worter.pdf Summary].
+* {{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |language=de |title=Wörter im Grenzbereich von Lexikon und Grammatik im Serbokroatischen |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Words on the Border Between Lexicon and Grammar |series=Studies in Slavic Linguistics; 18 |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa |year=2001 |page=280 |isbn=3895869546 |lccn=2005530313 |oclc=47905097 |ol=2863539W}} [https://www.webcitation.org/6A80Mj8Bf?url=http://www.snjezana-kordic.de/Summary_Worter.pdf Summary].
-* Traut, Gregory P. and Kazzazi, Kerstin. 1996. ''Dictionary of Language and Linguistics''. Routledge. London and New York.
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