View source for 0s

{{Short description|First 9 years of the Common Era}}
{{other uses|0s (disambiguation)|0S (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Epitaph des Marcus Caelius.JPG|thumb|Cenotaph of a centurion who died in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] (AD 9). Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under [[Augustus]] to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering [[Germania]], and is thus considered one of the most important events in [[European history]].{{sfn|Murdoch|2004|p=57}}]]
{{Decadebox|0}}The '''0s''' began on January 1, [[AD 1]] and ended on December 31, [[AD 9]], covering the first nine years of the [[Common Era]]. It is one of two [[decade#0-to-9 decade|"0-to-9" decade]]-like timespans that contain nine years, along with the [[0s BC]].

<!-- Politics and conflicts -->In Europe, the 0s saw the continuation of conflict between the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Germanic tribes]] in the [[Early Imperial campaigns in Germania]]. [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Vinicius]], [[Tiberius]] and [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]] led Roman forces in multiple punitive campaigns, before sustaining a major defeat at the hands of [[Arminius]] in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]]. Concurrently, the Roman Empire fought the {{lang|la|[[Bellum Batonianum]]|italic=no}} against a rebelling alliance of native peoples led by [[Bato the Daesitiate]] in [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], which was suppressed in AD 9. A conflict also took place in Korea, where [[Daeso]], King of [[Dongbuyeo]] invaded [[Goguryeo]] with a 50,000-man army in AD 6. He was forced to retreat when heavy snow began to fall, stopping the conflict until the next decade. In China, the last ruler of the Chinese [[Western Han dynasty]] ([[Ruzi Ying]]) was deposed, allowing [[Wang Mang]] to establish the [[Xin dynasty]].

<!-- Literature -->Literary works from the 0s include works from the ancient [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] poet [[Ovid]]; the {{Lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}}, an instructional [[elegy]] series in three books, ''[[Metamorphoses]],'' a poem which chronicles the history of the world from its [[Creation myth|creation]] to the deification of [[Julius Caesar]] within a loose mythico-historical framework, and ''[[Ibis (Ovid)|Ibis]],'' a curse poem written during his years in [[Exile of Ovid|exile]] across the [[Black Sea]] for an offense against [[Augustus]]. [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] wrote the 15-volume ''History of the World''.

<!-- Demographics and religion -->[[Estimates of historical world population#Before 1950|Estimates for the world population by AD 1]] range from 150 to 300 million. A [[census]] was concluded in [[China]] in AD 2: final numbers showed a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history. [[Dionysius Exiguus]] assigned Jesus's birth date in AD 1, in his [[anno Domini]] era according to at least one scholar. However, most scholars think Dionysius placed the birth of Jesus in the previous year, [[1 BC]]. Furthermore, most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, placing the event several years earlier (see [[Chronology of Jesus]]).

== Politics and wars ==
[[File:World in 1 CE.png|thumb|550px|centre|Map of the world in 1 AD]]
=== Heads of state ===
{{Hatnote|In this table, the last year of an emperor is excluded if they reigned multiple years.}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Polity
!AD 1
!AD 2
!AD 3
!AD 4
!AD 5
!AD 6
!AD 7
!AD 8
!AD 9
|-
|[[Roman Empire]]
| colspan="9" |[[Augustus]]
|-
|[[Chinese empire]]
| colspan="5" |[[Emperor Ping of Han|Ping]]
| colspan="3" |[[Ruzi Ying]]
|[[Wang Mang]]
|-
|[[Parthian Empire]]<ref>Going by Daryaee (2012)

Daryaee, Touraj (2012). "Appendix: Ruling Dynasties of Iran". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0199875757</nowiki>.</ref>
|[[Phraates IV]]
| colspan="3" |[[Phraates V]] and [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]]
|(none)
|[[Orodes III of Parthia|Orodes III]]
|(none)
| colspan="2" |[[Vonones I]]
|-
|[[Dacia]]
| colspan="9" |[[Comosicus]]
|-
|[[Thracian kingdom (Roman vassal state)|Thracian kingdom]]
| colspan="9" |[[Rhoemetalces I]]
|-
|[[Nabataean Kingdom]]
| colspan="9" |[[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]] and [[Chuldu]]
|}

=== Wars ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Start
!Finish
!Name of Conflict
!Description
|-
|6 AD
|9 AD
|{{lang|la|[[Bellum Batonianum]]|italic=no}}
|
|-
|12 BC
|AD 16
|[[Early imperial campaigns in Germania]]
* [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]]
|By AD 1, the Roman Empire had been expanding its territories and exerting influence throughout Europe, including regions bordering the Rhine River. The Romans sought to consolidate their control over Germanic territories east of the Rhine and integrate them into the empire. Between 2 BC and AD 4, Vinicius commanded five legions in Germany, successfully leading them in the "vast war" against Germanic tribes. He was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia upon his return to Rome. In AD 4, Tiberius took command and waged campaigns in northern Germany, conquering several tribes and establishing alliances. The Cherusci tribe, including the influential Arminius, became friends with Rome. Tiberius built a winter base on the Lippe to monitor the Cherusci. By AD 6, most German tribes were pacified, and Rome planned an attack on the Marcomanni but made peace instead. Varus replaced Tiberius and imposed civic changes, but Arminius incited a revolt. In AD 9, Varus fell into an ambush by Arminius, suffering a devastating defeat as Roman forces were surrounded and overwhelmed. Varus took his own life, while a few survivors managed to return to Roman quarters.
|-
|6 AD
|21 AD
|[[Daeso#War with Goguryeo|Goguryeo-Dongbuyeo Wars]]
|
|}

{{Events by year for decade|0}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Estimates of historical world population#Historical population}}
Estimates for the world population in 1 AD range from 150 to 300 million. The below table summarizes estimates by various authors.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;font-size:small;"
![[Population Reference Bureau|PRB]]
(1973–2016)<ref name="Population Reference Bureau">Data from [http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx Population Reference Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520091122/http://www.prb.org/Home.aspx |date=2008-05-20 }}.

2016 estimate: (a) [http://www.prb.org/pdf16/prb-wpds2016-web-2016.pdf "2016 World Population Data Sheet"]

2015 estimate: (b) Toshiko Kaneda, 2015, [http://www.prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2015 World Population Data Sheet"].

2014 estimate: (c) Carl Haub, 2014, [http://www.prb.org/pdf14/2014-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2014 World Population Data Sheet"].

2013 estimate: (d) Carl Haub, 2013, [http://www.prb.org/pdf13/2013-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2013 World Population Data Sheet"].

2012 estimate: (e) Carl Haub, 2012, [http://www.prb.org/pdf12/2012-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2012 World Population Data Sheet"].

2011 estimate: (f) Carl Haub, 2011, [http://www.prb.org/pdf11/2011population-data-sheet_eng.pdf "2011 World Population Data Sheet"].

2010 estimate: (g) Carl Haub, 2010, [http://www.prb.org/pdf10/10wpds_eng.pdf "2010 World Population Data Sheet"].

2009 estimate: (h) Carl Haub, 2009, [http://www.prb.org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf "2009 World Population Data Sheet"].

2008 estimate: (i) Carl Haub, 2008, [http://www.prb.org/pdf08/08WPDS_Eng.pdf "2008 World Population Data Sheet"].

2007 estimate: (j) Carl Haub, 2007, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2007 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224205549/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2007/2007WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-02-24 }}.

2006 estimate: (k) Carl Haub, 2006, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2006 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222075621/http://prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2006/2006WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2010-12-22 }}.

2005 estimate: (l) Carl Haub, 2005, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx "2005 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414150237/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2005/2005WorldPopulationDataSheet.aspx |date=2011-04-14 }}.

2004 estimate: (m) Carl Haub, 2004, [http://www.prb.org/pdf04/04WorldDataSheet_ENG.pdf "2004 World Population Data Sheet"].

2003 estimate: (n) Carl Haub, 2003, [http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf "2003 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819182509/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~psc/WorldPopulationDS03_Eng.pdf |date=2019-08-19 }}.

2002 estimate: (o) Carl Haub, 2002, [http://www.prb.org/pdf/worldpopulationds02_eng.pdf "2002 World Population Data Sheet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209093516/http://www.prb.org/pdf/WorldPopulationDS02_Eng.pdf |date=2017-12-09 }}.

2001 estimate: (p) Carl Haub, 2001, [http://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/18790/publi_pdf2_pop_and_soc_english_370.en.pdf "2001 World Population Data Sheet"].

2000 estimate: (q) 2000, [http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx "9 Billion World Population by 2050"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201050626/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2000/9BillionWorldPopulationby2050.aspx |date=2018-02-01 }}.

1997 estimate: (r) 1997, [http://www.epidemiolog.net/evolving/DemographyBasics.pdf "Studying Populations"].

Estimates for 1995 and prior: (s) Carl Haub, 1995, [https://www.un.org/popin/popis/journals/poptoday/today0295.html "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?"] ''Population Today'', Vol. 23 (no. 2), pp. 5–6.</ref>
![[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN]]
(2015)<ref name="The World at Six Billion, 1999">Data from [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.]

1950–2100 estimates (only medium variants shown): (a) [http://esa.un.org/unpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511162049/http://esa.un.org/unpp/ |date=2011-05-11 }}

Estimates prior to 1950: (b) [https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm "The World at Six Billion", 1999.]

Estimates from 1950 to 2100: (c) [http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx "Population of the entire world, yearly, 1950 - 2100", 2013.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119132504/http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_history3.aspx |date=November 19, 2016 }}

2014: (d) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf "2014 World Urbanization Prospects", 2014.]

2015: (e) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf"2015 World Urbanization Prospects", 2015.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320035709/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm |date=March 20, 2014 }}</ref>
![[Angus Maddison|Maddison]]
(2008)<ref name="www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics">[http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/ Angus Maddison, 2003, ''The World Economy: Historical Statistics'', Vol. 2, OECD, Paris] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232041/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/publications/worldeconomy/|date=May 13, 2008}} {{ISBN|92-64-10412-7}}.

[http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls "Statistical Appendix"] (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003  from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."</ref>
!HYDE
(2010)<ref name="HYDE2010">Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86. {{doi|10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x}} ([http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/download/index-2.html pbl.nl]). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those by [[Colin McEvedy]] (1978) but lower than those by Massimo Livi Bacci (1989, 2012). ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150221004127/http://itbulk.org/population/world-population-history/ graphs (itbulk.org)]).</ref>
![[John Tanton|Tanton]]
(1994)<ref name="thesocialcontract.com2">[http://www.thesocialcontract.com/artman2/publish/tsc0403/article_329.shtml John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch?  Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173].</ref>
!Biraben
(1980)<ref name="French 1980, pp. 1">Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13.  Original paper in French: (b)  Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.</ref>
![[Colin McEvedy|McEvedy]] &
Jones (1978)<ref name="Richard Jones 1978">Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, ''Atlas of World Population History'', Facts on File, New York, {{ISBN|0-7139-1031-3}}.</ref>
!Thomlinson
(1975)<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Ralph Thomlinson]], 1975, ''Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control'', 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, {{ISBN|0-8221-0166-1}}.</ref>
!Durand
(1974)<ref name="John D. Durand 1974">John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.</ref>
![[Colin Clark (economist)|Clark]]
(1967)<ref name="Colin Clark 1967">Colin Clark, 1967, ''Population Growth and Land Use'', St. Martin's Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-333-01126-0}}.</ref>
|-
|300M<ref>Haub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."</ref>
|300M
|231M<ref>"The present figures are a revision and update of those presented on this website in 2003.  The most significant changes are in the entries for the year 1, where gaps in previous tables have been filled with the new estimates for the Roman Empire in Maddison (2007). The estimates are in fact for 14 AD"</ref>
|188M<ref name="mnp.nl">[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 Data] from [http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html History Database of the Global Environment.]  K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2,  Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.</ref>
|150M
|255M
|170M
|200M
|270–330M
|256M<ref>The estimates are in fact for 14 AD"</ref>
|}


==Significant people==
* [[Erato of Armenia|Erato]], [[Artaxiad dynasty]] Queen of Armenia, 8–5 BC, 2 BC – 2 AD, 6–11
* [[Ariobarzan of Atropatene]], Client King of Armenia, r. 1 BC – 2 AD
* [[Artavazd V]], Client King of Armenia, r. 2–11
* [[Tigranes V of Armenia|Tigranes V]], [[Artaxiad dynasty]] King of Armenia, r. 2–6
* [[Emperor Ping|Ping Di]], Emperor of [[Han dynasty]] China, r. 1 BC – 5 AD
* [[Ruzi Ying]], Emperor of [[Han dynasty]] China, r. 6–9
* [[Wang Mang]], Usurper Emperor of the short-lived [[Xin dynasty]] in China r. 9–23
* [[Antiochus III of Commagene|Antiochus III]], King of Commagene, r. 12 BC – 17 AD
* [[Arminius]], [[Germany|German]] war chief
* [[Arshak II of Iberia|Arshak II]], King of [[Caucasian Iberia]], r. 20 BC-1 AD
* [[Pharasmanes I of Iberia|Pharasmanes I]], King of [[Caucasian Iberia]], r. 1-58
* [[Strato II and III|Strato II and Strato III]], co-kings of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, r. 25 BC – 10 AD
* [[Crimthann Nia Náir]], Legendary [[List of High Kings of Ireland|High King of Ireland]], r. [[8 BC]] – [[AD 9]]
* [[Cairbre Cinnchait]], Legendary [[List of High Kings of Ireland|High King of Ireland]], r. 9–14
* [[Emperor Suinin|Suinin]], Legendary Emperor of Japan, r. 29 BC – 70 AD
* [[Natakamani]], [[List of Kushite Kings|King of Kush]], r. ([[1 BC]] – [[AD 20]])
* [[Abgar V of Edessa]], King of [[Osroene]], 4 BC–AD 7, 13–50
* [[Ma'nu IV bar Ma'nu|Ma'nu IV]], King of [[Osroene]], 7–13
* [[Phraates V of Parthia|Phraates V]], King of the [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian Empire]], r. 2 BC – 4 AD
* [[Musa of Parthia]], mother and co-ruler with Phraates V, r. 2 BC – 4 AD
* [[Orodes III of Parthia|Orodes III]], King of the [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian Empire]], r. 4–6
* [[Vonones I of Parthia|Vonones I]], King of the [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian Empire]], r. 8–12
* [[Artabanus II of Parthia|Artabanus of Parthia]], pretender to the Parthian throne and future King of Parthia
* [[Caesar Augustus]], [[Roman Emperor]] ([[27 BC]] – [[AD 14]])
* [[Gaius Caesar]], Roman general
* [[Livy]], Roman historian
* [[Ovid]], Roman poet
* [[Quirinius]], Roman nobleman and politician
* [[Hillel the Elder]], Jewish scholar and [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]] of the [[Sanhedrin]], in office {{Circa|31 BC}} – 9 AD
* [[Shammai]], Jewish scholar and [[Av Beit Din]] of the [[Sanhedrin]], in office 20 BC – 20 AD
* [[Tiberius]], Roman general, statesman, and future emperor
* [[Hyeokgeose of Silla|Hyeokgeose]], King of [[Silla]], r. 57 BC – 4 AD
* [[Namhae of Silla|Namhae]], King of [[Silla]], r. 4–24

{{Births and deaths by year for decade|0}}

==See also==
* [[00s (disambiguation)]]

==References==
{{notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book
| first     = Georges
| last      = Declercq
| title     = Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian Era
| location  = Turnhout, Belgium
| publisher = Brepols
| date      = 2000
| isbn      = 978-2503510507
| pages     = 143–147
}}

* {{cite journal
| first     = Georges
| last      = Declercq
| journal   = Sacris Erudiri
| volume    = 41
| pages     = 165–246
| title     = Dionysius Exiguus and the introduction of the Christian Era
| location  = Brussels
| publisher = Brepols
| date      = 2002
| issn      = 0771-7776
| doi       = 10.1484/J.SE.2.300491
| quote     = Annotated version of a portion of ''Anno Domini''
}}

* {{cite book
| first     = James D. G.
| last      = Dunn
| series    = Christianity in the Making
| volume    = 1
| title     = Jesus Remembered
| publisher = Eerdmans Publishing
| date      = 2003
| page      = 324
| isbn      = 978-0802839312
}}

* {{cite book
| last      = Klingaman
| first     = William K.
| title     = The First Century: Emperors, Gods and Everyman
| date      = 1990
| isbn      = 978-0785822561
| publisher = Harper-Collins
}}
* {{citation|first=Theodore|last=Mommsen|title=A History of Rome Under the Emperors|publisher=Routledge|location=UK|year=1996|isbn=0-415-10113-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Sanders|first=Ed P. | author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |isbn=978-0-14-192822-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Murdoch |first1=Adrian |year=2004 |chapter=Germania Romana |editor1-last=Murdoch |editor1-first=Brian |editor1-link=Brian O. Murdoch |editor2-last=Read |editor2-first=Malcolm |title=[[Early Germanic Literature and Culture]] |url= |publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer]] |pages=55–73 |isbn=157113199X}}
{{refend}}

{{commons category}}

[[Category:0s| ]]