View source for Glen Canyon Dam

{{short description|Dam in Arizona, USA}}
{{use mdy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox dam
| name = Glen Canyon Dam
| name_official = 
| image = Glen_Canyon_Dam_and_Bridge.JPG
| image_size = 240px
| image_caption = Glen Canyon Dam and [[Glen Canyon Bridge|Bridge]],<br>looking upstream
| image_alt = Frontal view of a concrete dam and a river canyon.
| location_map = USA#Arizona
| location_map_size = 
| location_map_caption = Location in the [[United States]]##Location in [[Arizona]]
| location_map_alt = A topographic map of the western United States
| coordinates = {{coord|36|56|15|N|111|29|04|W|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| country = United States
| location = [[Coconino County, Arizona]]
| purpose = 
| status = 
| construction_began = {{Start date and age|1956}}
| opening = {{Start date and age|1966}}
| demolished = 
| cost = $135 million<br>(${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|135e6|1966}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}} dollars{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}})
| owner = [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]]
| operator = 
| dam_type = [[Arch-gravity dam]]
| dam_crosses = [[Colorado River]]
| dam_height_foundation = {{convert|710|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223006/http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Dimensions |archive-date=2016-03-03 |url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Dimensions |title=Glen Canyon Dam Dimensions |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |access-date=2016-08-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| dam_height_thalweg = 
| dam_length = {{convert|1560|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| dam_elevation_crest = {{convert|3715|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="dimensions"/>
| dam_width_crest = 
| dam_width_base = 
| dam_volume = 
| spillway_count = 
| spillway_type = Tunnel, gated
| spillway_capacity = {{convert|208000|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="hydraulics">{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Hydraulics+%26+Hydrology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905123647/http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam&groupName=Hydraulics+%26+Hydrology |archive-date=2015-09-05 |title=Glen Canyon Dam Hydraulics & Hydrology |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |access-date=2016-08-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| res_name = [[Lake Powell]]
| res_capacity_total = {{convert|25160000|acre feet|km3|abbr=on}}<ref name="capacity">{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/lake-powells-storage-capacity-updated-first-time-1986|title=Lake Powell's storage capacity updated for first time since 1986|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=2022-03-21|accessdate=2022-06-06}}</ref>
| res_capacity_active = 
| res_capacity_inactive = 
| res_catchment = {{convert|108335|mi2|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="hydraulics"/>
| res_surface = {{convert|161390|acre|ha|abbr=on}}<ref name="overview"/>
| res_max_length = 
| res_max_width = 
| res_max_depth = 
| res_elevation = 
| res_tidal_range = 
| plant_coordinates = 
| plant_operator = 
| plant_commission = 1964 (first 2 units)<ref name="powerplant"/>
| plant_decommission = 
| plant_type = 
| plant_hydraulic_head = 
| plant_turbines = 8 x 254,000 hp [[Francis turbine]]s<ref name="powerplant">{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Powerplant.jsp?fac_Name=Glen%20Canyon%20Powerplant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905122942/http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Powerplant.jsp?fac_Name=Glen%20Canyon%20Powerplant |archive-date=2015-09-05 |title=Glen Canyon Powerplant |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |access-date=2016-08-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| plant_capacity = 1,320 [[Megawatt|MW]]<ref name="powerplant"/>
| plant_capacity_factor = 
| plant_annual_gen = 4,717 [[Gigawatt hour|GWh]]<ref name="longtermplan"/>
| website = 
| extra = 
}}
'''Glen Canyon Dam''' is a concrete [[arch-gravity dam]] in the [[southwestern United States]], located on the [[Colorado River]] in northern [[Arizona]], near the city of [[Page, Arizona|Page]]. The&nbsp;{{convert|710|ft|m|adj=mid|-high}} dam was built by the [[Bureau of Reclamation]] (USBR) from 1956 to 1966 and forms [[Lake Powell]], one of the largest man-made [[reservoir]]s in the U.S. with a capacity of more than {{convert|25|e6acre feet|km3|lk=in}}.<ref name="capacity"/> The&nbsp;dam is named for [[Glen Canyon]], a series of deep sandstone [[canyon|gorges]] now flooded by the reservoir; Lake Powell is named for [[John Wesley Powell]], who in 1869 led the first expedition to traverse the Colorado River's [[Grand Canyon]] by&nbsp;boat.

A dam in Glen Canyon was studied as early as 1924, but these plans were initially dropped in favor of the [[Hoover Dam]] (completed in 1936) which was located in the [[Black Canyon of the Colorado|Black Canyon]]. By the 1950s, due to rapid population growth in the seven U.S. and two [[List of states of Mexico|Mexican states]] comprising the Colorado River Basin, the Bureau of Reclamation deemed the construction of additional reservoirs necessary.<ref name="CRSP"/> The Glen Canyon Dam remains a central issue for modern environmentalist movements. Beginning in the late 1990s, the [[Sierra Club]] and other organizations renewed the call to dismantle the dam and drain Lake Powell in Lower Glen Canyon. Glen Canyon and Lake Powell are managed by the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] within [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].

Since first filling to capacity in 1980, Lake Powell water levels have fluctuated greatly depending on water demand and annual runoff. The operation of Glen Canyon Dam helps ensure an equitable distribution of water between the states of the Upper Colorado River Basin ([[Colorado]], [[Wyoming]], and most of [[New Mexico]] and [[Utah]]) and the Lower Basin ([[California]], [[Nevada]] and most of [[Arizona]]).<ref name="CRSP"/> During years of drought, Glen Canyon guarantees a water delivery to the Lower Basin states, without the need for rationing in the Upper Basin. In wet years, it captures extra runoff for future use.<ref name="CRSP"/> The dam is also a major source of [[hydroelectricity]], averaging over 4 billion [[kilowatt hour]]s per year.<ref name="longtermplan"/> The long and winding Lake Powell, known for its scenic beauty and recreational opportunities including [[houseboat]]ing, fishing and [[water skiing]], attracts millions of tourists each year to the [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]].<ref name="USBRlakepowell"/>

In addition to its flooding of the scenic Glen Canyon, the dam's economic justification was questioned by some critics.<ref>Needham, p. 202</ref> It became "a catalyst for the modern environmental movement,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/glen_canyon/history|title=History of the Environmental Movement|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> and was one of the last dams of its size to be built in the United States.<ref>Martin, p. 3</ref> The dam has been criticized for the large [[Evaporation|evaporative losses]] from Lake Powell and its impact on the ecology of the Grand Canyon, which lies downstream; environmental groups continue to advocate for the dam's removal. Water managers and utilities state that the dam is a major source of [[renewable energy]] and provides a buffer for severe droughts.
[[File:Panorama of Glen Canyon Dam.jpg|thumb|Panorama of Glen Canyon Dam showing Lake Powell, Glen Canyon Dam and Carl Hayden Visitor Center]]

==Background==
===The need for a dam===
The Colorado River is the single largest source of water in the [[southwestern United States]] and northwest Mexico; before massive dam projects tamed the river in the 20th century, its flow was far from dependable. Annual discharge from the Colorado River and its tributaries ranges from {{convert|4|to|22|e6acre.ft|km3}},<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/
|title=Colorado River Storage Project
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=2016-06-29
|access-date=2016-09-18
|archive-date=March 6, 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306074056/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and 10-year averages may fluctuate as much as {{convert|1|e6acre.ft|km3}}.<ref name="fluct"/> Flooding, and the river's enormous [[silt]] or sediment load, created problems for settlements in the [[Lower Colorado River Valley]] and navigation on the lower portion of the river. During droughts, there was too little water available for [[irrigation]]. In 1904, the Colorado River was accidentally redirected after it damaged a canal gate in Mexico, causing the river to flood part of California's [[Imperial Valley]] and create the [[Salton Sea]].<ref>Reisner, p. 123</ref> After this catastrophe, California and Arizona began to call for a dam to control the tempestuous river.<ref>Martin, p. 21</ref>

[[Image:A bend in Glen Canyon of the Colorado River, Grand Canyon, ca.1898 (CHS-4708).jpg|thumb|left|A boater on the river in Glen Canyon before damming, circa 1898.|alt=A boat floats on a river at the bottom of a rocky canyon]]
In 1922, six U.S. states signed the [[Colorado River Compact]] to officially allocate the flow of the Colorado River and its tributaries. Each half of the Colorado River Basin – the Upper Basin, comprising Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming – and the Lower Basin, with California and Nevada – was allotted {{convert|7.5|e6acre.ft|km3}} of water annually,<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.snwa.com/where-southern-nevada-gets-its-water/the-colorado-river/index.html
|title=Colorado River Law
|publisher=Southern Nevada Water Authority
|access-date=2016-08-31
|archive-date=May 12, 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512044147/https://www.snwa.com/where-southern-nevada-gets-its-water/the-colorado-river/index.html
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and [[Treaty relating to the utilization of waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande]] was signed in 1944 allocating {{convert|1.5|e6acre.ft|km3}} to Mexico.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g1000/pdfiles/mextrety.pdf
|title=Treaty Between the United States of America and Mexico: Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=1944-02-03
|access-date=2011-05-22
|archive-date=September 21, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921091153/http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g1000/pdfiles/mextrety.pdf
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The third lower basin state, Arizona, did not ratify the Compact until 1944 because it was concerned that California might seek to appropriate a portion of its share before it could be put to use.<ref>Martin, pp. 25–29</ref>

The total, {{convert|16.5|e6acre.ft|km3}}, was based on only thirty years of streamflow records starting in the late 1890s. It was believed to represent the annual flow as measured at [[Lee's Ferry|Lee's Ferry, Arizona]] (the official dividing point of the upper and lower basins), {{convert|16|mi|km}} downstream of present-day Glen Canyon Dam. As it turned out, the early 20th century was one of the wettest periods in the last 800 years. The dependable natural flow past Lees Ferry is now believed to be about {{convert|13.5|to|14.6|e6acre.ft|km3}}.<ref name="fluct">{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308053347/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/uoa-hcr052506.php
 |archive-date=2016-03-08
 |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/uoa-hcr052506.php
 |title=Historic Colorado River streamflows reconstructed back to 1490
 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science
 |work=EurekAlert
 |date=2006-05-25
 |access-date=2011-05-22
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://livingrivers.org/pdfs/TheOne-DamSolution.pdf
|title=The One-Dam Solution: Preliminary report to the Bureau of Reclamation on proposed reoperation strategies for Glen Canyon and Hoover Dam under low water conditions
|publisher=Living Rivers
|date=July 2005
|access-date=2011-05-22}}</ref>

The general consensus among inhabitants of the Colorado River basin and government officials was that a high dam had to be built on the Colorado to control floods and provide carry-over water storage for times of drought.<ref>Stevens, pp. 15–18</ref> Possible locations for this dam were debated for years, and the Bureau of Reclamation's first study for a dam at Glen Canyon was made in 1924, in addition to studies for locations at [[Black Canyon of the Colorado|Black]] and Boulder Canyons lower on the Colorado, below Grand Canyon.<ref>Rogers, p. 9</ref> These studies found that the lower Colorado sites had stronger foundation rock which might result in less reservoir seepage. The Glen Canyon site was so remote that delivering supplies and transporting workers there would be infeasible at the time. The first Glen Canyon proposal lay upstream of the Lee's Ferry dividing line, and would be considered the Upper Basin's water. With its substantial Congressional clout, California refused to allow the "virtual faucets" of a Colorado River dam "to be built in what amounted to hostile territory."<ref>Martin, p. 28</ref>

With the Glen Canyon site out of the question, the initial need for a reservoir was realized in 1936 with the completion of [[Hoover Dam]] in Black Canyon, storing {{convert|32|e6acre feet|km3}} in the mammoth reservoir of [[Lake Mead]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/lake/learn/nature/storage-capacity-of-lake-mead.htm|title=Storage Capacity of Lake Mead|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Lake Mead National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-09-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/faqs/damfaqs.html|title=Hoover Dam Frequently Asked Questions and Answers|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=2015-03-12|access-date=2016-09-07|archive-date=September 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912025417/http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/faqs/damfaqs.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was not able to weather the worst floods or droughts, and was filling with sediment at a rate that would render it useless in a few hundred years.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403065851/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/dams/boulder_dam2/chap3.htm
 |archive-date=2013-04-03
 |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/dams/boulder_dam2/chap3.htm
 |title=Chapter 3 – The Benefits
 |publisher=U.S. National Park Service
 |work=Lake Mead: The Story of Boulder Dam
 |date=2008-02-01
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> But most importantly, Hoover only controlled the lower portion of the river. The Upper Basin states, whose rivers remained undammed, had no way to ensure they could fulfill their delivery obligation to the Lower Basin states while retaining enough water for their own use. Without storage reservoirs of their own, the Upper Basin states risked a "call" on the Colorado River during drought years: they would be forced to use less water in order to keep the river flowing to Lake Mead and California, the state with the most senior water rights.<ref name="CRSP">{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104225/http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Colorado%20River%20Storage%20Project
 |archive-date=2016-03-04
 |url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Project.jsp?proj_Name=Colorado%20River%20Storage%20Project
 |title=Colorado River Storage Project
 |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
 |date=2010-05-04
 |access-date=2011-05-22
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref>

===Colorado River Storage Project===
[[Image:Colorado river dams.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A map of the Colorado River Basin, with the locations of major dams indicated.|Map showing locations of major dams in the Colorado River Basin, with Glen Canyon near the center of the basin.]]
To provide water for the Upper Basin and ensure delivery to the Lower Basin, the Bureau of Reclamation proposed the [[Colorado River Storage Project]], which would consist of a dam on the Colorado River at Glen Canyon, several dams on the [[Gunnison River]] and [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan River]], and a pair of dams to be built on the [[Green River (Colorado River)|Green River]], the Colorado's major upper tributary, at [[Echo Park (Colorado)|Echo Park]] and Split Mountain.<ref>Martin, p. 54</ref> The 1956 Colorado River Storage Project Act authorized the purposes of "regulating the flow of the Colorado River, storing water for beneficial consumptive use, providing for reclamation of arid and semi-arid lands, providing flood control, and generating hydropower."<ref name="CRSP"/>

The proposal for Glen Canyon Dam was most vocally supported by the state of Arizona, which wished to get Colorado River water to [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] and [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]], located hundreds of miles away from the Colorado in the center of the state. Glen Canyon Dam would regulate river flow between Lee's Ferry and Lake Mead, where the Colorado drops some {{convert|1200|ft|m}}, allowing the future construction of two additional hydroelectric dams, at [[Marble Canyon Dam|Marble Canyon]] and [[Bridge Canyon Dam|Bridge Canyon]]. These two dams would be partially inside [[Grand Canyon National Park]]. Glen, Marble and Bridge together would provide the power necessary to pump water to where it was needed in central Arizona.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/colorado/chap7a.htm|title=Effects of Proposed Projects on the Grand Canyon|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=A Survey of the Recreational Resources of the Colorado River Basin|date=2004-09-06|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref> In 1963, Arizona's congressional delegation proposed these dams as part of the [[Central Arizona Project]] to accomplish these goals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grandcanyonhistory.clas.asu.edu/sites_coloradorivercorridor_bridgecanyon.html|title=Bridge Canyon|publisher=Arizona State University|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307224626/http://www.usbr.gov/projects//ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1303158888395.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-07 |url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1303158888395.pdf |title=The Central Arizona Project |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |author=Zuniga, Jennifer E. |date=2000 |access-date=2016-08-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The state of California opposed the project, as it would eliminate the "surplus" water in the Colorado (really the Upper Basin's yet unused supplies) it had gotten accustomed to using.<ref>Martin, p. 56</ref>

The Bureau of Reclamation recognized a more serious problem. Construction of the Storage Project, and allowing the Upper Basin to develop its water supplies, would tip the whole Colorado River system toward a structural water deficit since the Colorado River's average flow is less than what was apportioned in the 1922 Compact.<ref name="Pacific Southwest Water Plan"/> The USBR predicted that by 2030 the annual water supply for the Lower Basin would fall by twenty-five percent, to {{convert|5.62|e6acre feet|km3}}.<ref name="Pacific Southwest Water Plan">{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/crbstudy/PSWPRptJan64.pdf|title=Pacific Southwest Water Plan|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=1964-01-21|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> To make up for this deficit, the USBR incorporated these proposals with the "Pacific Southwest Water Plan" on January 21, 1964, in which power sales from Glen, Marble and Bridge (often called "cash register dams") would be used to fund a diversion of water from the wetter [[Pacific Northwest]] to the Colorado Basin.<ref name="Pacific Southwest Water Plan"/> In addition to the proposed diversion of the [[Trinity River (California)|Trinity River]] in Northern California, [[Marc Reisner]] wrote in ''[[Cadillac Desert]]'' that "in the Pacific Northwest there was a lot of suspicion that the Pacific Southwest Water Plan was merely a smokescreen for a much larger plan, long a gleam in the Colorado Basin's eye, to tap the [[Columbia River]]."<ref>Reisner, p. 273–275</ref>

===Environmental concerns ===

{{quote box
|quote=...&nbsp;Echo Park was a pure indulgence in the most austere of deserts. In autumn, its groves of cottonwood and yellowing willow gave it a [[New England]] air. In the spring, the swollen Green [River] would flood the canyon bottom and leave lush meadows as it went. Echo Park was probably the most beautiful canyon flat in all of Utah, part of Dinosaur National Monument. It was also an ideal site for a dam.
|author= —[[Marc Reisner]]
|source=''[[Cadillac Desert]]'' (1986)<ref name="Reisner 284">Reisner, p. 284</ref>
|width=35%
|align=right
}}

[[Image:Echo_Rock,_Green_River,_Utah._Old_No._105._Echo_Park_looking_from_upper_end._Yampa_River_in_the_-_NARA_-_517755.tif|thumb|right|alt=View of two rivers converging behind trees, at the base of a cliff.|Echo Park, looking south with the [[Yampa River]] (left) joining the Green River. The USBR proposed damming the Green a short distance downstream, behind the large cliff (Steamboat Rock) at right.]]

The Echo Park dam would be inside the federally protected [[Dinosaur National Monument]] and would submerge {{convert|110|mi|km}} of scenic canyons – a move that alarmed environmentalists.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103155731/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/colorado/chap9.htm
 |archive-date=2013-11-03
 |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/colorado/chap9.htm
 |title=Chapter IX: Dinosaur National Monument (continued)
 |publisher=U.S. National Park Service
 |work=A Survey of the Recreational Resources of the Colorado River Basin
 |date=2004-09-06
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> The environmental organization [[Sierra Club]], led by [[David Brower]], was the most vocal opponent of Echo Park Dam, and fought a protracted battle against the Bureau of Reclamation, on the basis that "building the dam would not only destroy a unique wilderness area, but would set a terrible precedent for exploiting resources in America's national parks and monuments".<ref name="largedams398">Billington, Jackson and Melosi, p. 398</ref>

The Bureau of Reclamation favored the Echo Park site over Glen Canyon, because its narrow canyons and high elevation (more than {{convert|5000|ft|m}}, as compared to {{convert|3700|ft|m}} at Glen Canyon) would lead to less evaporation. It said that building Echo Park Dam and a "low" Glen Canyon Dam would save {{convert|165|e3acre feet|km3}} of water per year over a "high" Glen Canyon Dam (which was ultimately the version to be built). While studying the figures, Brower discovered that the difference should be no more than {{convert|19|e3acre feet|km3}}.<ref>Harvey, p. 193</ref> Although it is unclear whether the discrepancy was due to a miscalculation or intentional manipulation, Brower said "it would be a great mistake [to rely on the Bureau's figures] when they cannot add, subtract, multiply and divide."<ref name="Reisner 284"/>

In the face of public scrutiny, and wishing to avoid more questions about the Colorado River Storage Project as a whole, the Bureau of Reclamation dropped the Echo Park proposal in 1954. Even as construction began on the other dams, the drama of the Echo Park debate had shifted the American public's perception on big government projects and their environmental consequences.<ref>Gahan and Rowley, p. 698</ref> Echo Park was considered a victory for the American environmental movement, but it only happened in exchange for a dam upstream at [[Flaming Gorge Dam|Flaming Gorge]], and increasing the size of the proposed dam at Glen Canyon to replace the storage that would have been provided by Echo Park.<ref name="Billington337">Billington and Jackson, p. 337</ref> A common misconception is that the environmentalists were given a choice between damming Echo Park and damming Glen Canyon, but the USBR "had always planned to build a dam at Glen Canyon, regardless of the outcome of the Echo Park debate".<ref>Rogers, p. 13</ref>

{{quote box
|quote=[The Colorado River without dams] is useless to anyone&nbsp; ... I've seen all the wild rivers I ever wanted to see.
|author= —[[Floyd Dominy]], Bureau of Reclamation Commissioner
|source=1966 speech<ref>{{cite news|author=Martin, Douglas|title=F. E. Dominy, Who Harnessed Water in the American West, Is Dead at 100|date=2010-04-28|access-date=2016-09-03|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/29/us/29dominy.html}}</ref>
|width=35%
|align=left
}}

[[Floyd Dominy]], commissioner of the Bureau of Reclamation, was a vital figure in pushing the project through Congress and convincing politicians to take a pro-dam stance, and to assuage rising public concerns. Dominy realized that the USBR had considerable political clout in Western states, due to the economic contributions of its water projects. Reisner wrote that "Dominy cultivated Congress as if he were tending prize-winning orchids&nbsp; ... If some Senator was causing him trouble, money for his project could disappear mighty fast."<ref>Reisner, p. 228</ref> With the necessary political support secured, the Colorado River Storage Project was authorized in April 1956, and groundbreaking of Glen Canyon Dam began in October of the same year.<ref name="Rogers, p. 16">Rogers, p. 16</ref>

David Brower visited Glen Canyon shortly after the decision to build the dam, and "realized once he arrived that this was not a place for a reservoir".<ref name="gci brower"/> Glen Canyon's springs, side canyons, and intricately sculpted rock formations were home to such features as Music Temple and Cathedral in the Desert, a giant cave-like natural amphitheater with a waterfall at its center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/eij/article/drowned_heart/|title=Drowned Heart: A Trip to Drought-Wracked Lake Powell Reveals the Lost Wonder of the "Cathedral in the Desert"|publisher=Earth Island Journal|author=Miller, Jeremy|date=2015|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The Colorado River flowed gently across the bottom of the canyon, in sharp contrast to the roaring rapids upstream in [[Cataract Canyon]] and downstream in the Grand Canyon. After his groundbreaking [[Powell Geographic Expedition of 1869|1869 expedition]], John Wesley Powell had named Glen Canyon for its characteristics: "So we have a curious ensemble of wonderful features – carved walls, royal arches, glens, alcove gulches, mounds and monuments. From which of these features shall we select a name? We decide to call it Glen Canyon."<ref>Martin, p. 119</ref> In addition to its variegated rock formations, Glen Canyon supported a rich [[riparian zone]] habitat on the numerous low [[river terrace]]s formed by the Colorado River, with as many as 316 bird species,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Birds of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah and Arizona|author1=Spence, John R. |author2=LaRue, Charles T. |author3=Grahame, John D. |journal=Monographs of the Western North American Naturalist|volume=5|number=1|year=2011|pages=20–69|doi=10.3398/042.005.0102|s2cid=85251858 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=mwnan |doi-access=free}}</ref> 79 plant species and 34 kinds of mammals.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/glen_canyon/why-glen-canyon
|title=Why Glen Canyon?
|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
|access-date=2016-09-03
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703042109/http://www.glencanyon.org/glen_canyon/why-glen-canyon
|archive-date=2016-07-03
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

[[Image:Glen Canyon Music Temple.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The view from the bottom of a forested canyon, showing curved rock formations above.|Near Music Temple in Glen Canyon during the 1870s]]
In 1963, when construction on the dam was well underway, the Sierra Club published a book on Glen Canyon, ''[[Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series|The Place No One Knew]]'', featuring photographs by [[Eliot Porter]], and lamenting the loss of the canyon before most of the American public had a chance to visit, or were even aware of its existence.<ref name="gci brower">{{cite web|url=http://www.glencanyon.org/about/david-brower|title=David Brower|publisher=Glen Canyon Institute|access-date=2016-09-01}}</ref> Though little known to most Americans before Porter's book, Glen Canyon had been visited by a handful of hikers and boaters (such as Powell's expedition), and some had even been interviewed by Brower.  As said to Brower by writer [[Wallace Stegner]], who had been to the canyon in 1947, "Echo doesn't hold a candle to Glen."<ref>Rogers, p. 14</ref>

Emboldened by Echo Park and desperate to prevent the Grand Canyon from reaching the same fate as Glen, Brower and the Sierra Club directed attention towards the proposed [[Bridge Canyon Dam|Bridge]] and [[Marble Canyon Dam|Marble]] dams. The Sierra Club launched an extensive publicity campaign to sway public opinion against the plan; in response to the USBR's argument that new reservoirs would open up the Grand Canyon to recreational boaters as Lake Powell had, a full-page advertisement in the ''[[New York Times]]'' ran the slogan: "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can float nearer the ceiling?"<ref name="cooper">{{cite web|url=http://washingtonmonthly.com/2013/05/15/the-sierra-club-was-once-the-victim-of-a-politically-motivated-irs-attack/|title=The Sierra Club Was Once the Victim of a Politically Motivated IRS Attack|publisher=Washington Monthly|author=Cooper, Ryan|date=2013-05-15|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Faced with public outcry, the Bureau abandoned its Grand Canyon dams, effectively terminating most of the Pacific Southwest Water Plan, in 1968. The coal-fired [[Navajo Generating Station]] was built near Page, to make up for the electric power that was lost with the cancellation of the dam project. The Sierra Club lost its [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] tax-exempt status a day after the advertisement was released due to its disruptive political activities.<ref name="cooper"/> The group's membership more than doubled in the next three years, many of them citizens unhappy with the IRS's apparent overreach.<ref>Gunter, p. 95</ref>

==Construction==

===Site preparations===
As early as 1947, the Bureau of Reclamation had begun investigating two potential sites, both located in the narrow lower reaches of Glen Canyon shortly upstream of Lee's Ferry. The site originally favored by the USBR was just {{convert|4|mi|km}} upstream, but the final decision was to build the dam {{convert|16.5|mi|km}} upstream because of stronger foundation rock and easier access to gravel deposits on [[Wahweap Creek]].<ref>Rogers, p. 15</ref> Because the dam site lay in a remote, rugged area of the [[Colorado Plateau]] – more than {{convert|30|mi|km}} from the closest paved road, [[U.S. Route 89]] – a new road had to be constructed, branching off from US 89 north of [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], and running through the dam site to its terminus at [[Kanab, Utah]].<ref>Parks, p. 10</ref> Because of the isolated location, acquiring the land at the dam and reservoir sites was not particularly difficult, but there were a few disputes with ranchers and miners in the area (many of the [[Navajo Nation]]).<ref name="Rogers, p. 16"/> Much of the land acquired for the dam was through an exchange with the Navajo, in which the tribe ceded Manson Mesa south of the dam site for a similar-sized chunk of land near [[Aneth, Utah]], which the Navajo had long coveted.<ref>Linford, p. 207</ref>

[[File:Glen Canyon Before Dam.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Aerial view of a river cutting a canyon through a rocky plateau.|Glen Canyon damsite from the air in November 1957, prior to construction of the Glen Canyon Bridge]]
In the early stages of construction, the only way to cross Glen Canyon was a suspension [[footbridge]] made of chicken wire and metal grates. Vehicles had to make a {{convert|225|mi|km|adj=on}} journey in order to get from one side of the canyon to the other.<ref name="westernconstruction"/> A road link was urgently needed, in order to safely accommodate workers and heavy construction equipment. The contract for building the bridge was awarded to Peter Kiewit Sons and the Judson Pacific Murphy Co. for $4 million and construction began in late 1956, reaching completion on August 11, 1957.<ref name="Rogers, p. 20">Rogers, p. 20</ref> When finished, the steel arch [[Glen Canyon Bridge]] was itself a marvel of engineering: at {{convert|1271|ft|m}} long and rising {{convert|700|ft|m}} above the river, it was the highest bridge of its kind in the United States and one of the highest in the world.<ref>Parks, p. 8</ref> The bridge soon became a major tourist attraction. The March 1959 issue of [[Life (magazine)|''LIFE'']] reported that "motorists [were] driving miles out of their way just to be thrilled by its dizzying height."<ref>{{cite magazine
|title=A Span For A Dam
|magazine=LIFE
|volume=45
|number=11
|date=1959-03-16
|page=54
|access-date=2016-09-03
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlIEAAAAMBAJ&q=a+span+for+a+dam&pg=PA54}}</ref>

Workers moved to the dam site beginning in the mid-late 1950s; the construction camp started out as a haphazardly organized [[trailer park]] that grew with the workforce.<ref>Nersesian, p. 295</ref> During the construction of the Glen Canyon Bridge, the USBR also began planning a [[company town]] to house the workers. This resulted in the town of [[Page, Arizona]], named for former Reclamation Commissioner John C. Page. By 1959, Page had a host of temporary buildings, electricity, and a small school serving workers' children. As the city grew, it gathered additional features, including numerous stores, a hospital, and even a jeweler.<ref name="Rogers, p. 20"/> It was intended to serve a maximum population of eight thousand, accounting for the workers' families; the peak workforce would eventually exceed 2,500 in the busiest phases of construction.<ref>Parks, p. 12</ref> The engineer in charge of the project would be [[Lem F. Wylie]], who had worked on Hoover Dam and had previously designed six other USBR dams.<ref>Billington, Jackson and Melosi, p. 184</ref>

Prior to and during construction, three separate grants were issued by the [[National Park Service]] to document and recover artifacts of historical cultures along the river.  These went to [[University of Utah]] historian [[C. Gregory Crampton]] and anthropologist Jesse Jennings, and to the [[Museum of Northern Arizona]].  Crampton subsequently wrote several books and articles on his findings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usbr.gov/projects/pdf.php?id=227 |title=Glen Canyon Project |last1=Rogers |first1=Jedediah |date=2006 |website=United States Bureau of Reclamation |access-date=April 21, 2018 |format=PDF }}</ref> The Museum of Northern Arizona funded an expedition by William Miller and [[Helmut Abt]], in coordination with the Navajo Nation, to investigate historical artifacts. They discovered a petroglyph in the upper part of the canyon depicting the appearance of the [[Crab Nebula]] in 1054.<ref>{{cite journal |title=An earlier explosion date for the Crab Nebula supernova |journal=Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=037 |last1=Abt |first1=Helmut |date=2018 |doi=10.1088/1674-4527/18/4/37 |bibcode=2018RAA....18...37A |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===River diversion===
[[File:Glen Canyon Dam plans.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Architectural plans for the Glen Canyon Dam and ancillary structures|Architectural plans for the Glen Canyon Dam and ancillary structures]]
In 1956, work began on the two diversion tunnels that would carry the Colorado River around the dam site during construction. Each of the tunnels was {{convert|41|ft|m}} in diameter, with a combined capacity of {{convert|200000|cuft/s|m3/s}}; the right-side tunnel was {{convert|2740|ft|m}} long and the left {{convert|2900|ft|m}}.<ref name="westernconstruction"/><ref>Parks, p. 25</ref> The right tunnel would be used for carrying the Colorado's normal flow around the dam site, while the left tunnel, {{convert|33|ft|m}} above the water, would only be used during floods. The lower reaches of the tunnels would later be used to form the lower ends of the dam's spillways.<ref>Powell, pp. 12–13</ref> About {{convert|182000|yd3|m3}} of material would have to be excavated from the diversion tunnels.<ref name="westernconstruction">{{cite journal|author=McClellan, L.N.|title=A pre-bid look at site and construction problems of Glen Canyon Dam|journal=Western Construction|volume=32|pages=27–32|year=1957|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yesRAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA27}}</ref>

On October 15, 1956, President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] pressed a button on his desk in [[Washington, D.C.]], sending a telegraph signal that set off the first blast of dynamite at the portal of the right diversion tunnel.<ref name="construction">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/history.html
|title=Glen Canyon Dam Construction History
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Colorado River Storage Project
|date=2008-11-25
|access-date=2011-05-23
|archive-date=July 1, 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701062350/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/history.html
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Drilling the tunnels through the porous Navajo sandstone abutting the dam site posed major problems for the excavation crews of the Mountain States Construction Company, which won the contract for the diversion tunnels in 1956.<ref>Rogers, p. 23</ref> Transporting workers and equipment to the bottom of the canyon was extremely difficult. Initially, transport was done by barge from Wahweap Creek, but the fast current of the Colorado River could be dangerous. After a barge capsized, spilling tons of machinery into the river, a much safer cable-car system was installed.<ref name="Rogers 22">Rogers, p. 22</ref>  During excavation, the rock frequently broke apart or "slabbed" and collapsed into the tunnels, and metal bolts had to be drilled into the rock to secure it. The largest such event, on August 5, 1958, sent {{convert|5200|yd3|m3}} crashing down onto the upper portal of the left diversion tunnel.<ref name="Rogers 22"/>

Material dug out of the tunnels and the dam abutments on the canyon walls was used to build the two [[cofferdam]]s to divert the Colorado River, which were complete in February 1960. The upper cofferdam was {{convert|168|ft|m}} high, and it alone could store several million acre-feet of water to protect the dam site from flooding in the event that inflows exceeded the capacity of the diversion tunnels. On February 11, 1959, the right diversion tunnel was completed and began to carry the flow of the Colorado. The left tunnel was finished over three months later on May 19, 1959, slightly behind schedule.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Stimson
|first=Thomas E.
|title=The Dam That Spans the Canyon
|work=Popular Mechanics
|date=October 1960
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA117
|pages=117–121, 314
|volume=114
|number=4
|access-date=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Concrete placement and completion===
{{quote box
|quote=It looked as if they [Merritt-Chapman & Scott] were going to start losing money before they dropped a single man with a three-dollar shovel into that canyon. It was one thing to submit a low-ball bid, but it was quite another to ''pay'' for the privilege of breaking the company's back.
|author= —Russell Martin
|source=''A Story That Stands Like A Dam'' (1990)<ref name="Martin96"/>
|width=35%
|align=right
}}

With the Colorado River safely diverted around the canyon, construction could begin on the actual concrete arch dam. The contract was given to the Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation for an "astoundingly low" $107,955,552, about $30 million less than USBR's own estimate.<ref name="Martin96">Martin, p. 96</ref> Then, right before construction began, about 750 workers organized a [[Strike action|strike]] because of a wage reduction due to the completion of public facilities at Page. In December 1959, wages were raised by $4 a day, quelling the strikers.<ref>Martin, p. 153</ref> Concrete placement started on June 16, 1960, and started at a sluggish but growing pace. In 1962 the workforce topped out at nearly 2,500 employees laboring on the dam.<ref>Rogers, p. 24</ref> Construction would ultimately claim eighteen lives and injure numerous other workers, but contrary to popular myth, no workers were buried alive in the concrete.<ref name="FAQ">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/faq.html
|title=Glen Canyon Dam – Frequently Asked Questions
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|work=Colorado River Storage Project
|date=2008-11-25
|access-date=2011-05-25
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226135345/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/faq.html
|archive-date=2013-02-26
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Cement needed to make concrete for the dam came from the [[Phoenix Cement Company]] plant constructed for the purpose in [[Clarkdale, Arizona|Clarkdale]], south of [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]].<ref name="50 and Growing">{{cite news|title=Phoenix Cement: 50 & growing|url=http://verdenews.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&subsectionID=1&articleID=33133|work=Verde Independent|publisher=Western News&Info|date=2009-04-14|access-date=2013-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913152843/http://verdenews.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&subsectionID=1&articleID=33133|archive-date=2016-09-13}}</ref>

[[Image:Glen Canyon Dam 1962.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Aerial view of a partially complete Glen Canyon Dam|Glen Canyon Dam under construction, 1962]]
A huge [[concrete plant]] capable of putting out 1,450 tons per hour was installed, and a pair of cableways with movable towers (with capacities of 50 and 25 tons respectively) spanned the canyon, carrying the {{convert|12|yd3|m3|adj=on}} concrete buckets to their final destinations on the steadily rising crest of the dam. The concrete was poured into modular {{convert|7.5|ft|m|adj=on}} high wooden blocks or "forms", the largest measuring up to {{convert|60|ft|m}} by {{convert|210|ft|m}};<ref name="FAQ"/> more than 3,000 of these blocks made up the main structure of the dam. Once the concrete cured, the wooden scaffolding was removed and shifted upwards to accommodate the next load of concrete. As more efficient methods of concrete pouring were installed, including conveyors and remotely controlled buckets, the workforce gradually decreased.<ref>Parks, p. 27</ref><ref name="Rogers25"/> By late 1962, concrete was being poured into the dam at a rate of {{convert|8000|yd3|m3}} per day even as the workforce was scaled down to about 1,500.<ref name="Rogers25">Rogers, p. 25</ref>

At the beginning of 1963, the dam was high enough to begin impounding water; huge steel gates were closed over the right diversion tunnel on January 21,<ref>The Place No One Knew, Glen Canyon on the Colorado, by Eliot Porter, Sierra Club, 1968</ref> and Lake Powell began to rise. A minimal flow of {{convert|1000|cuft/s|m3/s}} was allowed through the dam, to prevent the Colorado River from drying up completely.<ref name="westernconstruction"/> On that day, David Brower confronted President [[John F. Kennedy]] in a last-ditch effort to delay Glen Canyon's inundation. Brower later said of that exchange: "On January 2, 1963, the last day on which the execution of one of the planet's greatest scenic antiquities could yet have been spared, the man who theoretically had the power to save the place did not. I was within a few feet of his desk in Washington that day and witnessed how the forces long at work had their way. So a steel gate dropped, choking off the flow of the canyon's carotid artery, and from that moment the canyon's life force ebbed quickly. A huge reservoir, absolutely not needed in this century, almost certainly not needed in the next, and conceivably never to be needed at all, began to fill."<ref name="restorationbrower">{{cite web
|url=http://vault.sierraclub.org/sierra/199703/brower.asp
|title=Let the River Run Through It: More than forty years ago David Brower made a mistake. Now he says it's time to bring Glen Canyon back to life.
|publisher=Sierra Club
|work=Sierra Magazine
|date=March 1997
|access-date=2011-05-24}}</ref>

Construction continued and on September 13, 1963, the dam was topped out.<ref name="Rogers25"/> Work on the power plant and spillways began directly after the dam wall was complete. The spillway tunnels were excavated around both abutments of the dam, dropping steeply from their control gates on Lake Powell to merge with the lower ends of the diversion tunnels. This measure saved cost, but introduced a weak point where the two tunnels intersected. The upper ends of the diversion tunnels were then sealed with solid concrete. The first electricity was generated on September 4, 1964, with the power sent into the regional electric grid through a pair of long-distance transmission lines as far as [[Phoenix, Arizona]] and [[Farmington, New Mexico]].<ref name="construction"/> It took two more years to complete all remaining aspects of the project. On September 22, 1966 [[Lady Bird Johnson]] gave the official dedication speech for Glen Canyon Dam, before a crowd of 3,000 people.<ref>Gahan and Rowley, p. 716</ref>

===Filling Lake Powell===
With a capacity equal to almost two years' annual flow of the Colorado River, engineers were aware that Lake Powell would be difficult to fill, but more problems were encountered than expected. The original plan was to fill Lake Powell to {{convert|3490|ft|m}} above sea level, the minimum level necessary to generate hydroelectric power by late 1964, after which water would be released down to [[Lake Mead]], with only the excess stored in Lake Powell. The spring runoff in 1963 was the lowest on record in ten years. By the beginning of 1964, Lake Powell had barely reached half the target level, and Lake Mead had seen a sharp decline.<ref>Martin, p. 253</ref> In March, Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] ordered the filling halted and extra releases made to Lake Mead, to the consternation of the Upper Basin states. In May, Udall changed his mind yet again to lower releases, gambling that the spring runoff would be enough to raise Powell to minimum power pool by autumn, by which time power releases could begin, to prevent Lake Mead from falling below ''its'' minimum power pool.<ref>Martin, p. 257</ref> That gamble paid off, with Lake Powell barely inching over the {{convert|3490|ft|m|adj=on}} mark on August 16, 1964.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=1964-08-16|title=Bureau of Reclamation Lake Powell Water Data for August 16, 1964|publisher=water-data.com|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>

[[Image:Aerial view of the Glen Canyon Dam, 1965, US Bureau of Reclamation.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Aerial view of Glen Canyon Dam and a partially filled Lake Powell behind it.|Lake Powell filling underway, 1965]]
It took more than 17 years for Lake Powell to finally reach its full elevation of {{convert|3700|ft|m}} above sea level,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/baumanpr/geosat2/Lake_Powell/Colorado%20River%20Basin-Lake%20Powell.pdf|title=Drought in the Colorado River Basin: Shrinkage of Lake Powell|author=Baumann, Paul R.|publisher=State University of New York – College at Oneonta|date=2008|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> which it crossed on June 22, 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=1980-06-22|title=Bureau of Reclamation Lake Powell Water Data for June 22, 1980|publisher=water-data.com|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> One of the main reasons for this slow rise, in addition to the need to meet obligations to the Lower Basin, was the leakage of vast amounts of water into the porous Navajo Sandstone aquifer. Between 1963 and 1969, as much as {{convert|655000|acre feet|km3}} leaked into the reservoir banks each year.<ref name="bankstorage"/> Conversely, some of this "bank storage" flows back into the reservoir as springs and seeps when Lake Powell is low. Exactly how much of this water has potential to return to the reservoir, and how much "disappears" into the ground, is subject to debate.<ref name="Myers2013">{{cite journal|author=Myers, Tom|title=Loss Rates from Lake Powell and Their Impact on Management of the Colorado River|journal=Journal of the American Water Resources Association|date=2013-06-21|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1213–1224|doi=10.1111/jawr.12081|bibcode=2013JAWRA..49.1213M|s2cid=128700962 }}</ref>

The Bureau of Reclamation projected that once Lake Powell filled, the total bank storage would stabilize at approximately {{convert|6|e6acre feet|km3}}, and henceforth would fluctuate depending on water levels in the reservoir.<ref name="bankstorage">{{cite web|url=http://www.riversimulator.org/Resources/LPRPB/BankStorageMurdock1969.pdf|title=Bank Storage in Lake Powell|publisher=riversimulator.org|work=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |date=Sep 1969 |author1=Murdock, J. Neil |author2=Calder, Lloyd |access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The actual loss was {{convert|13.4|e6acre feet|km3}}, twice the initial prediction, but river flow data indicates that further leakage after 1980 has been negligible.<ref name="FAQ"/><ref name="bankstorage"/> According to a 2013 study by hydrologist Thomas Myers for the [[Glen Canyon Institute]], the reservoir continues to lose about {{convert|380000|acre feet|km3}} each year due to leakage.<ref name="Myers2013"/> According to USBR data for water year 2015 (a year when Lake Powell did not experience a significant overall gain or loss in volume), Lake Powell lost a total of {{convert|368000|acre feet|km3}} to evaporation and only {{convert|8000|acre feet|km3}} to leakage.<ref name="201524MonthStudy">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/water/crsp/studies/24Month_10.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308175352/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/water/crsp/studies/24Month_10.pdf
|archive-date=2016-03-08
|title=October 2015 24-Month Study
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=2015-10-14
|access-date=2016-08-28}}</ref>

==Later history==

===The 1983 floods===
[[Image:GCDam.gif|thumb|right|alt=Glen Canyon Dam releasing floodwater. A rainbow is visible over the Colorado River.|Glen Canyon Dam releasing floodwater in 1984, testing repairs of the spillways which were heavily damaged in 1983.]]
[[File:Glen Canyon Spillway Gates.jpg|thumb|right|alt=View of two large gates separated by concrete piers, holding back floodwater.|The right spillway gates during 1983 flood, showing flashboards that were installed to increase the water level]]
{{further|Risks to the Glen Canyon Dam#1983}}
During the [[1982–83 El Niño Event|El Niño winter of 1982–1983]], the Bureau of Reclamation predicted an average runoff for the Colorado River basin based on snowpack measurements in the Rocky Mountains. Snowfall during April and May was exceptionally heavy; this combined with a sudden rise in temperatures and unusual rainstorms in June to produce major flooding across the western United States.<ref>Martin, p. 315</ref> With Lake Powell nearly full, the USBR did not have enough time to draw down the reservoir to accommodate extra runoff. By mid-June, water was pouring into Lake Powell at over {{convert|120000|cuft/s|m3/s}}. Even with the power plant and river [[outlet works]] running at full capacity, Lake Powell continued to rise to the point where the [[spillway]]s had to be opened. Other than a brief test in 1980, this was the only time the spillways had ever been used.<ref>Powell, p. 11</ref>

At the beginning of June, dam operators opened the gates on the left spillway, sending {{convert|10000|cuft/s|m3/s}}, less than one-tenth of capacity, down the tunnel into the river below. After a few days, the entire dam suddenly began to shake violently. The spillway was closed down for inspections and workers discovered that the flow of water was causing [[cavitation]] – the explosive collapse of vacuum pockets in water moving at high speed – which was damaging the concrete lining and eroding the rock spillway tunnels from the upper ends of the diversion tunnels, which connect to the bottom of the reservoir.<ref name="Powell14">Powell, p. 14</ref> This was rapidly being destroyed by the cavitation and it was feared that a connection would be made to the bottom of Lake Powell, compromising the dam's foundation and causing the dam to fail.<ref name="Powell14"/>

Meanwhile, snow continued melting in the Rockies and Lake Powell continued to rise rapidly. To delay having to use the spillways, the USBR installed plywood flashboards (later replaced by steel) atop the gates to increase the lake level.<ref>Schneiderman, p. 11</ref> Even this additional capacity was exhausted; discharges through the left spillway reached {{convert|32000|cuft/s|m3/s}}, and the right spillway was opened to {{convert|15000|cuft/s|m3/s}}. At Lee's Ferry, the Colorado River peaked at {{convert|97300|cuft/s|m3/s}}, which was and still is the highest water flow recorded there since the dam was built.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/peak?site_no=09380000&agency_cd=USGS&format=html|title=USGS Gage #09380000 on the Colorado River at Lee's Ferry, AZ – Peak Streamflow|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|work=National Water Information System|date=1884–2015|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref> On July 14, Lake Powell reached {{convert|3708.34|ft|m}} elevation, a level that has not been exceeded since.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=1983-07-14|title=Bureau of Reclamation Lake Powell Water Data for July 14, 1983|publisher=water-data.com|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Just as it seemed inevitable that the dam would fail, inflows fell and the dam was saved. Upon inspection, it was found that cavitation had caused massive gouging damage to both spillways, carrying away thousands of tons of concrete, steel rebar and huge chunks of rock.<ref>Powell, p. 3</ref>

Repairs to the spillways commenced as soon as possible and continued well into 1984. Air slots were installed at the bottom of each spillway to break up and absorb the shock of the bubbles formed by cavitation. In 1984, the Colorado River basin produced even more runoff than 1983, peaking at {{convert|148000|cuft/s|m3/s}} in early June.<ref>Martin, p. 323</ref> This time, the USBR had drawn down the reservoir enough that it absorbed most of the early high flows. Nevertheless, Lake Powell rapidly approached the top of the spillway gates and construction efforts were subsequently focused on the left spillway in order to get it in operation in time. On August 12, the left spillway gates were opened, releasing water at a rate of {{convert|50000|cuft/s|m3/s}}. The spillway was undamaged, proving the worth of the re-engineering and suggesting that Glen Canyon Dam will also be able to hold against future floods with the magnitude of 1983.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.riversimulator.org/Resources/Legal/GCD/GCDemergency1983.pdf
|title=The Confluence
|journal=Colorado Plateau River Guides
|last=Weisheit
|first=John
|page=21
|volume=3
|issue=3
|year=1996
|access-date=2011-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010833/http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/PAP/PAP-0479.pdf
 |archive-date=2015-06-22
 |last=Frizell
 |first=K. Warren
 |url=http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/PAP/PAP-0479.pdf
 |title=Spillway Tests At Glen Canyon Dam
 |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
 |work=Hydraulics Branch, Division of Research and Laboratory Services, Engineering and Research Center
 |date=July 1985
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref>

===Continuing debates===
Long after the Glen Canyon Dam was built and continuing to the present day, controversy remains between supporters of dam removal and those who believe it should be left in place. One of the earliest debates regarding the dam was its impact on [[Rainbow Bridge National Monument]], whose {{convert|290|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[natural arch]] is the highest in North America, and is a sacred site to the Navajo people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/upload/GLCA-RABR_OV_SP.pdf|title=Foundation Document Overview: Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Rainbow Bridge National Monument|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2016-09-04}}</ref> The environmental lobby wanted the Bureau of Reclamation to keep Lake Powell at or below a level of {{convert|3600|ft|m}}, to prevent it from intruding into the monument.<ref>Powell, p. 132</ref> The Bureau of Reclamation proposed to build a barrier dam and pump system in order to keep water out of the monument. With the potential damage that would be caused to the remote environment, "the cure would be far worse than the disease."<ref>Martin, p. 10</ref> The proposal was fought over and litigated for years until it was permanently shelved in 1973.<ref>Martin, pp. 304–307</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.uen.org/utah_history_encyclopedia/r/RAINBOW_BRIDGE_NATIONAL_MONUMENT.html|title=Rainbow Bridge National Monument|publisher=Utah Education Network|encyclopedia=Utah History Encyclopedia|author=Rusho, W.L.|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113130135/http://www.uen.org/utah_history_encyclopedia/r/RAINBOW_BRIDGE_NATIONAL_MONUMENT.html|archive-date=2017-01-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Glen Canyon Dam became the subject of influential literature, including [[Edward Abbey]]'s novel ''[[The Monkey Wrench Gang]]'' (1975), which tells the story of a fictional group of environmentalists fighting against industrial developers in the American Southwest, their ultimate target being Glen Canyon Dam.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/american-dreams-the-worlds-dirtiest-eco-fighters|title=American Dreams: The World's Dirtiest Eco-Fighters|newspaper=The Daily Beast|author=Rich, Nathaniel|date=2015-09-26|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The novel gained a [[cult following]] after its publication and established Glen Canyon Dam as a poster child of environmental destruction caused by dams. Abbey's book is discussed in ''Ecospeak: Rhetoric and Environmental Politics in America'' (1992) by Jimmie Killingsworth and Jacqueline Palmer, who write that Glen Canyon Dam became "the big symbol of all that blocked freedom in the interests of civilized progress."<ref>Killingsworth and Palmer, p. 219</ref> On March 21, 1981, the radical environmental group [[Earth First!]] staged an anti-dam protest by unfurling a {{convert|300|ft|m|adj=on}} tapered black sheet of plastic down the face of the dam, making it appear as if a gigantic crack had appeared in the structure – a direct re-enactment of a scene from Abbey's book. Authorities were unable to find the individuals responsible.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Gilmore
|first=Jeff
|url=http://www.ajelp.com/comments/defending-environmentalists-punching-bag-lake-powell/
|title=Defending Environmentalists' Punching Bag: Lake Powell
|publisher=University of Arizona
|work=James E. Rogers College of Law
|access-date=2011-05-28
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last=Morrison
|first=Patt
|title=Terrorists or Saviors? : Environment: U.S. claims that Earth First! engaged in criminal conspiracy to disrupt nuclear facilities. The defense says the government is out to discredit the organization.
|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-06-16-mn-1526-story.html
|work=Los Angeles Times
|date=1991-06-16
|access-date=2011-05-28}}</ref>

[[Image:Lake Powell 2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The red-rock shores of Lake Powell, seen at a low water level.|Low water levels on Lake Powell in April 2006, seen from Hole in the Rock. The water is {{convert|107|ft|m}} below the top of the "bathtub ring" along the reservoir shore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=2006-04-30|title=Bureau of Reclamation Lake Powell Water Data for April 30, 2006|publisher=water-data.com|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>]]
In his comprehensive history of western water development, ''[[Cadillac Desert]]'' (1986), [[Marc Reisner]] criticized the political forces that resulted in Glen Canyon and hundreds of other dams being built in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of these projects had dubious economic justifications and hidden environmental costs, but the government agencies that built them – namely the Bureau of Reclamation and the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] – were more interested in maintaining their size and influence. Reisner writes that "in the West, it is said, water flows uphill towards money."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/la-xpm-2014-jan-10-la-oe-vandevelder-glen-canyon-brower-goldwater-20140110-story.html|title=Goldwater, Brower and the disastrous damming of the Colorado River: How two bitter opponents came to a meeting of the minds on water in the West|author=VanDevelder, Paul|work=Los Angeles Times|date=2014-01-10|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/if-you-only-read-one-book-about-the-water-crisis-cadillac-desert|title=If You Only Read One Book About the Water Crisis: 'Cadillac Desert'|newspaper=The Daily Beast|author=Hertsgaard, Mark|date=2015-07-10|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref>

In a 2011 interview, [[Floyd Dominy]], the Reclamation Commissioner who had spearheaded the Colorado River Storage Project, maintained USBR's stance on the benefits of the dam project. Although Lake Powell loses water to evaporation and leakage, it continues to serve an important function capturing runoff during wet years, as "insurance" for droughts.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402144443/http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/dominy.html
 |archive-date=2012-04-02
 |url=http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/dominy.html
 |title=Interview: Floyd Dominy
 |publisher=KUED
 |work=Glen Canyon: A Dam, Water and the West
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> During the 2000–2004 Colorado River drought, when the basin experienced its lowest five-year runoff on record, Lake Mead would likely have gone dry and the Lower Basin experienced massive cuts, were it not for releases from Lake Powell.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lakepowell.org/page_two/what_s_new/keys_response.htm|title=The Colorado River system: Dams and drought|publisher=Friends of Lake Powell|work=The Salt Lake Tribune|author=Keys, John W. III.|access-date=2016-08-29|archive-date=January 5, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105015948/http://www.lakepowell.org/page_two/what_s_new/keys_response.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/22/opinion/unplugging-the-colorado-river.html|title=Unplugging the Colorado River: Could the end be near for one of the West's biggest dams?|author=Lustgarten, Abrahm|date=2016-05-20|work=The New York Times|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref>

Lake Powell and Lake Mead are currently operated under an "equalization" policy that governs releases from Glen Canyon Dam. In order to maintain hydropower generation at both Glen Canyon and Hoover Dams, the lakes must be kept at approximately the same level. By spreading out the water, evaporation is greatly increased. Since the year 2000, Lake Mead has steadily declined toward the critical level at which a shortage would be declared for the Lower Basin states. A plan called "Fill Mead First", which would drain Lake Powell in order to refill Lake Mead, has gained traction in recent years. Glen Canyon Dam would remain in place (as total removal of the structure would be prohibitively expensive), but would only store water in wet seasons when runoff exceeds the capacity of Lake Mead to hold it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coloradoriverconnected.org/water-diversions/fill-mead-first/|title=Fill Mead First: A Common Sense Solution for the Colorado River|publisher=Colorado River Connected|access-date=2016-08-29|archive-date=September 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911131338/http://coloradoriverconnected.org/water-diversions/fill-mead-first/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/crbstudy/finalreport/Technical%20Report%20F%20-%20Development%20of%20Options%20and%20Stategies/Appendix%202%20-%20Options%20Submitted%20to%20the%20Study/Original%20Option%20Submittals/21_The_One-Dam_Solution_Re-examine_Colorado_River_Compact.pdf|title=The One-Dam Solution: Preliminary report to the Bureau of Reclamation on proposed reoperation strategies for Glen Canyon and Hoover Dam under low water conditions|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=July 2005|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref>

Much of the opposition to this plan is along political lines: Lake Powell is legally considered the Upper Basin's water, and Lake Mead belongs to the Lower Basin. The Friends of Lake Powell have called this an attempt to steal water from the Upper Basin, to avoid a shortage in the Lower Basin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakepowell.org/documents/Talking%20Points%20-%20Fill%20Lake%20Mead%20First.pdf|title=Talking Points against the Fill Lake Mead First Proposal|publisher=Friends of Lake Powell|access-date=2016-08-29|archive-date=September 14, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914201846/http://lakepowell.org/documents/Talking%20Points%20-%20Fill%20Lake%20Mead%20First.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Upper Basin has released 107% of its obligation from Lake Powell since 2000;{{#tag:ref|The annual water release requirement from Glen Canyon Dam is {{convert|8.23|e6acre feet|km3}}; the average release between 2000 and 2015 was {{convert|8.83|e6acre feet|km3}}, as measured at the [[U.S. Geological Survey]] stream gage at Lee's Ferry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/annual/?referred_module=sw&amp;site_no=09380000&amp;por_09380000_5188=19133,00060,5188,1922,2016&amp;year_type=W&amp;format=html_table&amp;date_format=YYYY-MM-DD&amp;rdb_compression=file&amp;submitted_form=parameter_selection_list|title=USGS Gage #09380000 on the Colorado River at Lee's Ferry, AZ|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|work=National Water Information System|date=1922–2015|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref>|group=n}} therefore, falling levels in Lake Mead are a result of water overuse and waste in the Lower Basin states<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.waterinfo.org/node/7238|title=Fill Mead first idea has big flaws|publisher=The Water Information Program|work=The Spectrum|date=2013-10-17|access-date=2016-08-29|archive-date=September 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918212146/http://www.waterinfo.org/node/7238|url-status=dead}}</ref> – a "structural deficit".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cap-az.com/public/blog/525-critical-to-arizona-s-water-future-fixing-lake-mead-s-structural-deficit|title=Critical to Arizona's Water Future: Fixing Lake Mead's Structural Deficit|publisher=Central Arizona Project|date=2016-07-06|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref> There are also arguments for storing water in Powell: Lake Mead, with its much lower elevation and hotter climate, has a considerably greater evaporation rate than Lake Powell.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/10/14/glen-canyon-dam-50-years/2981273/|title=50 years later, Glen Canyon Dam still controversial|publisher=USA Today|author=Loomis, Brandon|date=2013-10-14|access-date=2016-08-29}}</ref> In addition, a 1983 study by Larry J. Paulson of the [[University of Nevada]] showed that the cold water discharge from Glen Canyon Dam has led to a significant reduction of the water temperature, and thus evaporation, from Lake Mead.<ref>{{cite news|author=Paulson, Larry J.|title=Use of hydroelectric dams to control evaporation and salinity in the Colorado River system|work=Aquatic Resource Management of the Colorado River Ecosystem|pages=439–456|publisher=Ann Arbor Scientific Publishers|year=1983|url=http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/water_pubs/59/}}</ref>

==Design==

===Dam and spillways===
[[Image:Glen_Canyon_Dam_Lake_Powell,_Arizona.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Aerial view of Glen Canyon Dam from upstream|An aerial view of Glen Canyon Dam from upstream, showing the spillways to lower left and right, the [[Glen Canyon Bridge]] and the [[Electrical substation|electric switchyard]] to the right of the bridge.]]
Glen Canyon's overall design was based on that of Hoover Dam – a massive concrete arch-gravity structure anchored in solid bedrock – with several significant changes. The engineers wanted the dam to rely predominantly on its arch shape to carry the tremendous pressure of the impounded water into the canyon walls instead of depending on the sheer weight of the structure to hold the reservoir back, as had been done at Hoover.<ref name="design">{{cite web|url=https://www.leg.state.nv.us/App/NELIS/REL/78th2015/ExhibitDocument/OpenExhibitDocument?exhibitId=13711&fileDownloadName=SJR%2010%20Glen%20Canyon%20Dam%20Design.pdf|title=Design Features of Glen Canyon Dam|author=Schultz, Ernest R.|date=1961|publisher=Nevada Legislature|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The foundation rock at Glen Canyon consists of porous sandstone prone to [[spalling]], in contrast to the stronger granite at the Hoover Dam site, forcing the Glen Canyon design to follow more conservative lines by greatly thickening the abutments, thus increasing the surface area through which the weight of dam and reservoir would be transmitted to the rock and relieving the pressure on the highly breakable cliffs.<ref name="design"/>

The Glen Canyon Dam is {{convert|710|ft|m}} high from the foundations and stands {{convert|583|ft|m}} above the Colorado River. The crest of the dam is {{convert|1560|ft|m}} long and {{convert|25|ft|m}} wide, while the maximum thickness of the base is {{convert|300|ft|m}}. The elevation at the crest is {{convert|3715|ft|m}}, and the elevation of the Colorado River below the dam is {{convert|3132|ft|m}}. In total, the dam contains {{convert|5370000|yd3|m3}} of concrete<ref name="dimensions"/> and {{convert|28900000|lb|kg}} of reinforcing steel.<ref name="westernconstruction"/> The hydroelectric power station and river [[outlet works]] are located at the foot of the dam.<ref name="dimensions"/> The outlet works consist of four {{convert|96|in|cm|adj=on}} diameter pipes, each controlled by a ring gate and [[Floodgate#Valves|hollow-jet valve]]. The discharge capacity of the river outlet works is {{convert|15000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="overview">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903225017/http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam |archive-date=2016-09-03 |url=http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Glen+Canyon+Dam |title=Glen Canyon Dam Overview |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation |date=2009-05-29 |access-date=2016-08-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The two [[spillway]] tunnels are excavated through the canyon walls on each side of the dam. Twin radial gates, each {{convert|40|ft|m}} wide and {{convert|52.5|ft|m}} high, control the flow of water into the spillways. Together, the spillways can pass up to {{convert|208000|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="overview"/> The tunnels required {{convert|132000|yd3|m3}} of excavation and another {{convert|110000|yd3|m3}} of concrete lining.<ref name="westernconstruction"/> The circular, concrete-lined spillway tunnels plunge at a 55-degree angle, reducing in diameter from {{convert|48|to|41|ft|m}}, until they intersect with the old river diversion tunnels at sharp elbow joints before returning to the Colorado River. This was done as a cost-saving measure, but resulted in the destruction of both spillways during the 1983 flood releases. The repairs, in which air slots were installed to prevent [[cavitation]] shock waves, cost about $15 million.<ref name="HCN1983">{{cite news|title=The Bureau showed the Right Stuff: How Lake Powell almost broke free of Glen Canyon Dam this summer|author=Wolf, T.J.|date=1983-12-12|access-date=2016-09-03|work=High Country News|url=http://s3.amazonaws.com/hcn-media/archive-pdf/1983_12_12_how_lake_powell.pdf}}</ref>

===Water storage and distribution===
With a capacity of {{convert|25160000|acre feet|km3}},<ref name="capacity"/> Lake Powell is the second largest man-made lake in the United States by total water capacity (after only Lake Mead), extending {{convert|186|mi|km}} upstream through the canyons of Arizona and Utah. The lake covers {{convert|161390|acre|ha}} at its full pool elevation of {{convert|3700|ft|m}}.<ref name="overview"/>  The active, or useful capacity is {{convert|20.876|e6acre feet|km3}}.<ref name="overview"/> The minimum water level required for power generation is {{convert|3490|ft|m}}, corresponding to storage of {{convert|4.0|e6acre feet|km3}}, and the "dead pool", the lowest point at which water can be released through the dam, is {{convert|3370|ft|m}} with storage of {{convert|1.9|e6acre feet|km3}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.azwater.gov/azdwr/WaterManagement/AMAs/TucsonAMA/documents/CAWCDWaterSupplyStatusandShortageOutlook-CAPTomMcCann.pdf|title=Water Supply Status & Shortage Outlook|date=Feb 2011|publisher=Arizona Department of Water Resources|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> When Glen Canyon Dam was first built, the reservoir capacity was estimated at {{convert|28.04|e6acre feet|km3}}, but some of this has since been lost to siltation.<ref name="westernconstruction"/> Because of the hundreds of bays and sinuous side canyons, including those formed by the [[San Juan River (Colorado River)|San Juan]], [[Escalante River|Escalante]] and [[Dirty Devil River]]s, Lake Powell has an exceptionally long shoreline for a lake of its size – about {{convert|1960|mi|km}} at full pool, longer than the entire west coast of the continental United States.<ref>Bryant, p. 223</ref>

[[Image:Arizona, Lake Powell 01.jpg|thumb|left|alt=View of Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Powell from the edge of the canyon.|Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Powell]]
Glen Canyon Dam's most vital purpose is to provide storage to ensure enough water flows from the Upper Colorado River Basin to the lower, especially in drought years. The 1922 [[Colorado River Compact]] requires annual delivery of {{convert|7.5|e6acre feet|km3}} to the Lower Basin states of Arizona, California and Nevada; the [[International Boundary and Water Commission#The border and water treaties|1944 treaty with Mexico]] obligates the U.S. to allow at least {{convert|1.5|e6acre feet|km3}} for use in the Mexican states of [[Baja California]] and [[Sonora]]. Glen Canyon Dam must supply at least {{convert|8.23|e6acre feet|km3}} of this water; the remaining {{convert|770000|acre feet|km3}} comes from other tributaries of the Colorado River.<ref name="reservoirs">{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/strategies/FEIS/AppB.pdf
|title=Colorado River System Facilities and Current River System Operations From Lake Powell to SIB
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|access-date=2011-05-25
|archive-date=September 27, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927053131/http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/programs/strategies/FEIS/AppB.pdf
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The required release from Glen Canyon is averaged over a 10-year period, so releases in each year may be higher or lower depending on the amount of runoff. In wetter years, the Bureau of Reclamation may decide to release extra water from Glen Canyon Dam if the level of Lake Powell exceeds the "equalization tier", an elevation determined by the difference in storage between Lake Powell and Lake Mead.<ref name="operation criteria">{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/pao/pdfiles/opcriter.pdf|title=Criteria for Coordinated Long-Range Operation of Colorado River Reservoirs Pursuant to the Colorado River Basin Project Act of September 30, 1968 (P.L. 90-537)|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=1970-06-08|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-date=October 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007151748/http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/pao/pdfiles/opcriter.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Miller et al., p. 305</ref>

Most of Lake Powell's inflow originates as summer snowmelt from the [[Rocky Mountains]] of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/lake_powell.php|title=Water Level in Lake Powell|author=Lindsey, Rebecca|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|access-date=2016-08-31|date=2015-06-15}}</ref> Releases are made over a [[water year]] of October 1–September 30, since the annual [[snowpack]] begins to accumulate in late autumn. On April 1 of each year, the Bureau of Reclamation releases its official forecast of the April–July (snowmelt season) runoff, and adjusts releases from Glen Canyon Dam accordingly to maintain Lake Powell at a safe level. An accurate forecast is vital to prevent uncontrolled spilling, which would waste water that could have been used for power generation.<ref name="operation criteria"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://waterplan.state.wy.us/BAG/green/briefbook/lor/lor-14.html|title=Operating Criteria|publisher=Wyoming Water Development Office|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Although the snowpack typically reaches its peak and begins to melt in April,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://phys.org/news/2016-04-soil-absorb-snowmelt-colorado-river.html|title=Dry soil to absorb some snowmelt heading to Colorado River|author=Elliott, Dan|date=2016-04-22|work=phys.org|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> the picture can occasionally change unexpectedly and dramatically – either due to a hot and dry spring that evaporates snow before it can melt, or an extremely wet spring as occurred in May 1983. After the near disaster in 1983, the USBR has maintained a minimum of {{convert|2.4|e6acre feet|km3}} of flood-storage space in Lake Powell at the beginning of each year, to guard against unanticipated high runoff.<ref>National Research Council & Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies, p. 56</ref>

===21st century drought===
{{see also|Southwestern North American megadrought}}{{See also|Lake Powell#21st century drought and push to drain}}[[File:Lake Powell daily water volume (1963-06-28 - 2023-12-16).png|thumb|right|Chart showing daily water volume observations for Lake Powell, from Jun 28, 1963 to December 16, 2023]]
[[File:Lake Powell surface area shrinkage.svg|thumb|left|Lake Powell surface area shrinkage]]
Colorado River flows have been below average since 2000 as a result of the [[southwestern North American megadrought]], leading to lower lake levels. In winter 2005 (before the spring run-off) the lake reached its then-lowest level since filling, an elevation of {{convert|3555.10|ft|m}}<ref name=data>{{cite web |url=http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=1983-07-14 |title=Water Database |website=Lakepowell.water-data.com |access-date=2016-07-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924065650/http://lakepowell.water-data.com/index2.php?as_of=1983-07-14 |archive-date=2016-09-24 }}</ref> above sea level, which was approximately {{convert|150|ft|m}} below full pool. After 2005, the lake level slowly rebounded, although it has not filled completely since then. Summer 2011 saw the third largest June and the second largest July runoff since the closure of Glen Canyon Dam, and the water level peaked at nearly {{convert|3661|ft|m}}, 77&nbsp;percent of capacity, on July 30.<ref name=data/> Water years 2012 and 2013 were, respectively, the third and fourth-lowest runoff years recorded on the Colorado River. By April 9, 2014, the lake level had fallen to {{convert|3574.31|ft|m}}, largely erasing the gains made in 2011.<ref name=data/>

Colorado River levels returned to normal during water years 2014 and 2015 (pushing the lake to {{convert|3606|ft|m}} by the end of water year 2015.<ref name=data/> The Bureau of Reclamation in 2014 reduced the Lake Powell release from 8.23 to 7.48 million acre-feet, for the first time since the lake filled in 1980. This was done due to the "equalization" guideline which stipulates that an approximately equal amount of water must be retained in both Lake Powell and [[Lake Mead]], in order to preserve hydro-power generation capacity at both lakes. This resulted in Lake Mead declining to the lowest level on record since the 1930s.

Long-term water level decline continued, forcing an emergency release of water from the [[Flaming Gorge Reservoir]] in July 2021,<ref>[https://oilcity.news/general/2021/07/29/wyo-looks-to-store-divert-more-water-as-lake-powell-dries-up/ Wyo looks to store, divert more water as Lake Powell dries up]</ref> and by April 22, 2022 Lake Powell was at {{convert|3522.24|ft|m}} in elevation – just {{Percentage|5758561|25166000|2}} of capacity. This marks the lowest water level for Lake Powell since it was filled in 1963.<ref name="Reclamation">{{cite web |title=Monthly Reservoir Summary |url=https://www.usbr.gov/uc/water/rsvrs/ops/monthly_summaries/21_09_allRes.pdf |website=Upper Colorado Region |publisher=Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior |access-date=10 October 2021}}</ref> Peer-reviewed studies indicate that storing water in Lake Mead rather than in Lake Powell would yield a savings of 300,000 acre feet of water or more per year, leading to calls by environmentalists to drain Lake Powell and restore Glen Canyon to its natural, free-flowing state.

<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2015-09-04 |title=The Future of Lake Powell |url=https://www.grandcanyontrust.org/advocatemag/fall-winter-2015/future-lake-powell |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=Grand Canyon Trust |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-19 |title=Push to drain Lake Powell gaining momentum |url=https://ktla.com/news/push-to-drain-lake-powell-gaining-momentum/ |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=KTLA |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Writer |first=Anna Skinner Senior |last2=Assignment |first2=General |date=2023-08-10 |title=Inside a plan to completely drain Lake Powell |url=https://www.newsweek.com/inside-plan-completely-drain-lake-powell-1819013 |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref>

===Power generation===
[[Image:Dam generator impeller.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Francis turbine runner on display]]
[[Image:Dam generator without rotor.jpg|thumb|left|A generator being repaired with [[Rotor (turbine)|rotor]] removed]]
The other principal goal of Glen Canyon Dam is [[hydroelectricity]] generation. It is the second-biggest producer of hydroelectric power in the Southwestern United States, after Hoover Dam. Revenues derived from power sales were integral in paying off the bonds used to build the dam and have also been used to fund other Bureau of Reclamation projects, including environmental restoration programs in the Grand Canyon and elsewhere along the Colorado River.<ref name="gcdamp">{{cite web|url=http://www.gcdamp.gov/faq.html|title=Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program|date=2013-04-04|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142819/http://www.gcdamp.gov/faq.html|archive-date=2016-11-26}}</ref> For this reason, it has long been known as a "cash register" dam. The dam also serves as a primary [[peaking power]] plant and [[black start]] power source for the Southwest electrical grid.<ref name="FAQ"/><ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402143938/http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/wirth.html
 |archive-date=2012-04-02
 |url=http://www.kued.org/productions/glencanyon/interviews/wirth.html
 |title=Interview: Barry Wirth
 |publisher=KUED
 |work=Glen Canyon: A Dam, Water and the West
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> The power plant has a total capacity of 1,320 [[megawatt]]s from eight 165,000 [[kilowatt]] generators. Each generator is driven by a 254,000 horsepower vertical-axis [[Francis turbine]]. The gross [[hydraulic head]] is {{convert|510|ft|m}}.<ref name="powerplant"/> The units were installed between September 1964 and February 1966 at an original rating of 950 megawatts; an upgrade project between 1985 and 1997 brought it to its present capacity.<ref name="powerplant"/>

[[Image:Glen Canyon Dam generator building.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Top view of the Glen Canyon power plant. The dam is to the left, with a grassy lawn between the structures.|View of the power plant and grass lawn]]
[[Image:DamGlenCanyonPower.JPG|thumb|right|alt=The inside of the Glen Canyon power plant, showing a row of large hydro-electric generators|Inside the turbine hall at the Glen Canyon Power Plant]]
Because of fluctuating demands on the electrical grid, the dam release into the Colorado River rises and falls dramatically on a daily basis. After the dam was completed in 1964, there were few restrictions on hydro-power generation. The minimum dam release was set at a meager {{convert|1000|cuft/s|m3/s}} (increased to {{convert|3000|cuft/s|m3/s}} during the summer [[whitewater rafting]] season), with a maximum of {{convert|31500|cuft/s|m3/s}} during peak times; to respond to changing power demands, river flows could double or even triple in the space of an hour.<ref name="eis"/> This caused severe erosion of the Colorado River banks downstream, damaging habitat for native fish and causing danger for boaters, who could get stuck whenever the river flow dropped too quickly.<ref>{{cite book|title=Operation of Glen Canyon Dam: Colorado River Storage Project, Arizona: final environmental impact statement|author=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|year=1995|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX0NKfMBp-kC&pg=PA3}}</ref> In 1990 temporary restrictions were put in place on dam operations, before the release of a final [[environmental impact statement]] (EIS).<ref name="eis"/>

The EIS completed March 21, 1995 cemented some restrictions on dam operations, limiting the maximum power release to {{convert|25000|cuft/s|m3/s}}, the maximum hourly "ramp-up" (increase in river flow) to {{convert|4000|cuft/s|m3/s}}, and the maximum "ramp-down" to {{convert|1500|cuft/s|m3/s}}.<ref name="eis">{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/amp/pdfs/sp_appndxG_ROD.pdf|title=Appendix G: Record of Decision|work=Operation of Glen Canyon Dam Final Environmental Impact Statement|date=1996-10-08|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-date=October 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007151803/https://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/amp/pdfs/sp_appndxG_ROD.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The minimum dam release was set to {{convert|8000|cuft/s|m3/s}} during the day and {{convert|5000|cuft/s|m3/s}} at night. Flood control releases are allowed to go higher, but must remain constant for the entire month. Because these criteria limit the flexibility of Glen Canyon Dam to meet grid demands, economic losses for the period 1997–2005 were estimated at $38 million to $58 million per year.<ref name="longtermplan">{{cite web|url=http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/01/f28/EIS-0480_Appendices_K-M.pdf |title= Appendix K: Hydropower Systems Technical Information and Analysis |publisher= U.S. Department of Energy |work= Glen Canyon Dam Long-Term Experimental and Management Plan Draft Environmental Impact Statement |date= Dec 2015 |access-date= 2016-08-31}}</ref>

Between 1980 and 2013, Glen Canyon Dam generated an average of 4,717 [[gigawatt hour]]s (GWh) per year, enough for about 400,000 homes. The highest was 8,703 GWh in 1984, and the lowest was 3,299 GWh in 2005.<ref name="longtermplan"/> Power generation is affected not only by the volume of water passing through the dam, but also the depth of water in the reservoir, as a higher water level means more pressure (head) on the turbines.<ref name="longtermplan"/> Hydropower generated at Glen Canyon serves about 5 million people in Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming, and is sold to utilities in these states as 20-year contracts.<ref name="gcdamp"/> Power sales have been managed by the [[Western Area Power Administration]] since 1977. Glen Canyon Dam generates enough power to offset 6.7 billion pounds (3 billion kg) of carbon dioxide emissions each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creda.org/Documents/Messaging%20Final%20100510.pdf|title=Hydropower and Glen Canyon Dam|publisher=Colorado River Energy Distributors Association|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014164800/http://www.creda.org/Documents/Messaging%20Final%20100510.pdf|archive-date=2016-10-14}}</ref> Drought conditions in the 21st century have reduced the amount of hydropower available from Glen Canyon Dam.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.hcn.org/blogs/goat/glen-canyons-evaporating-hydropower |author= Guerin, Emily |title= Glen Canyon Dam's evaporating hydropower |work= High Country News |date=2013-07-07 |access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>

An unusual feature of the Glen Canyon power plant is the {{convert|86000|ft2|m2}} [[Kentucky bluegrass]]<ref name="HCN1983"/> lawn occupying the crescent between the dam and hydroelectric plant. At the time of construction in 1964, the steel penstocks feeding water to the power plant were exposed and they experienced severe vibration when in use. Engineers decided to bury them in soil to act as a buffer against the potentially damaging vibrations. The grass was later planted to prevent the dirt from getting blown away – but also provides a mild cooling effect through [[evapotranspiration]], reducing temperatures inside the power plant.<ref>McPhee, p. 146</ref>

==Environmental issues==
[[File:Glen Canyon Dam MC.jpg|thumb|right|425px|alt=A wide view of the dark green Colorado River below Glen Canyon Dam.|View of the Colorado immediately downstream of Glen Canyon Dam (right). The green, clear water is caused by the dam trapping sediment, which would naturally cause the river to have a reddish-brown color.]]
Because of its tremendous ecological effect on the Colorado River, the Glen Canyon Dam has been subject to decades of criticism from the environmental movement. Being located in a high desert climate amid porous geology, Lake Powell causes huge evaporation and seepage losses. The Glen Canyon Institute estimates that {{convert|860000|acre.ft|km3}} is lost from the reservoir in an average year.<ref name="water supply and lake powell">{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929113856/http://www.glencanyon.org/library/water.php
 |archive-date=2011-09-29
 |url=http://www.glencanyon.org/library/water.php
 |title=Water Supply and Lake Powell
 |publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> This amounts to 6&nbsp;percent of the Colorado River's flow, an increasingly valuable amount of water in an arid land for both humans and the animals and plants that live along the river.<ref name="water supply and lake powell"/> (This amount greatly decreases when Lake Powell is low; with the reservoir about half full in water year 2015, evaporation was {{convert|368000|acre feet|km3}}.)<ref name="201524MonthStudy"/>

Like all dams, Glen Canyon traps [[sediment]] (silt), but because the Colorado is an especially muddy river, the dam has posed even more visible consequences for the river within the Grand Canyon. About 100 million US tons (90,700,000 metric tons) of sediment are trapped behind the dam annually, equal to about 30,000 dump truck loads per day.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929113911/http://www.glencanyon.org/library/sediment.php
 |archive-date=2011-09-29
 |url=http://www.glencanyon.org/library/sediment.php
 |title=Sediment and Lake Powell
 |publisher=Glen Canyon Institute
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> Because of the dam, sediment deposited by the Colorado and its tributaries is slowly filling up the canyon, and projections put the useful life of the reservoir at 300 to 700 years.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Graf, William L. |author2=Wohl, Ellen |author3=Sinha, Tushar |author4=Sabo, John L. |title=Sedimentation and sustainability of western American reservoirs|journal=Water Resources Research|volume=46|issue=12|pages=W12535 |year=2010|doi=10.1029/2009WR008836|bibcode=2010WRR....4612535G |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="orionmagazine"/> If no action is taken such as [[dredging]] or sediment [[Sluice|sluicing]], in a few hundred years, sediment deposits will begin to build up at the foot of the dam and will gradually block the different outlets, reducing the dam's capacity to store and release water. Thus, it would become more difficult to maintain the required release of {{convert|8.23|e6acre feet|km3}} below the dam. The Colorado River would reduce to a trickle in dry seasons as it naturally did before the dam was built, potentially compromising the water supply of the Lower Basin states.<ref name="orionmagazine">{{cite news
|last=Powell
|first=James
|url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/calamity-on-the-colorado/
|title=Calamity on the Colorado
|work=Orion Magazine
|date=July–August 2010
|access-date=2011-05-27}}</ref>

The Colorado through Grand Canyon now lacks the source of sediment it needs to build [[sandbar]]s and islands, and these natural fluvial formations within the canyon have now suffered severe damage from erosion. The floods that once scoured the river each year are now contained behind the dam except in extraordinary cases such as 1983–84; the lack of floods has promoted vegetation encroachment which not only has considerably changed the [[riparian zone]] environment but has created problems for tourism, as hikers and boaters often cannot find good spots to camp due to overgrowth. Flood control has also caused an inability of the river to carry away the [[rockslide]]s that are common along the canyons, leading to the creation of incrementally dangerous [[rapids]] that pose a hazard to fish and boaters alike. Before damming, the Colorado commonly reached flows of more than {{convert|100000|cuft/s|m3/s}} during the spring; this has been limited to less than {{convert|25000|cuft/s|m3/s}} most years with few exceptions.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gcdamp.gov/keyresc/sediment.html
|title=Sediment and River Sand Bars in the Grand Canyon
|publisher=Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program
|date=2006-12-04
|access-date=2011-05-27
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130040534/http://www.gcdamp.gov/keyresc/sediment.html
|archive-date=2016-11-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |last=Infalt
 |first=Susan B.
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010833/https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~shlemonc/html/trips/Grand%20Canyon%20web/html/reports/PDFs/Infalt.pdf
 |archive-date=2015-06-22
 |url=https://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~shlemonc/html/trips/Grand%20Canyon%20web/html/reports/PDFs/Infalt.pdf
 |title=Colorado River Native Riparian Vegetation in Grand Canyon: How Has Glen Canyon Dam Impacted These Communities?
 |publisher=University of California Davis
 |work=Department of Geology
 |date=2005-03-10
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref>

[[Image:Glen Canyon Dam 2522.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The Glen Canyon Dam and bridge, seen from the calm surface of the river at its base.|The Colorado River is now much calmer and colder than before the dam was built.]]
Before the dam was built, Colorado River temperatures ranged from over {{convert|80|F|C}} in the heat of summer to just above freezing in winter. Today, water released by Glen Canyon is a consistent {{convert|46|F|C}} throughout the year due to a [[thermal mass]] effect in Lake Powell. The water typically released from hundreds of feet below the lake surface through the penstocks is insulated from temperature fluctuations by the thick layer of water above it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/nature/hydrologicactivity.htm|title=Hydrologic Activity|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-09-17}}</ref><ref name="LivingRivers">{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324212550/http://www.livingrivers.net/campaigns/grandcanyon/article1.cfm
 |archive-date=2012-03-24
 |url=http://www.livingrivers.net/campaigns/grandcanyon/article1.cfm
 |title=Grand Canyon & Glen Canyon Dam: The Basics
 |publisher=Living Rivers
 |work=Save Grand Canyon Again
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref> Nikolai Ramsey of the Grand Canyon Trust describes the clearer, colder river as a "death zone for native fish",<ref name="Minard">{{cite news
|last=Minard
|first=Anne
|title=Re-opening Glen Canyon's floodgates
|work=High Country News
|date=2002-07-08
}}</ref> such as the endemic [[Colorado pikeminnow]] and [[humpback chub]], which are adapted to survive in warm, silty water.<ref name="Minard"/>

According to biologist and river guide Michael P. Ghiglieri, many drowning deaths by boaters in the Grand Canyon have been caused or exacerbated by rapid hypothermia and hypothermic shock caused by entering the cold water. He further described that during the record post-dam high-flow season of 1983 ([[Glen Canyon Dam#The 1983 floods|mentioned above]]), there was only one boating fatality in the canyon, providing a strong challenge to views that the dam, by reducing and mediating river flows, increases the safety of canyon river users.<ref name="Ghiglieri211">Ghiglieri, pp. 211–215</ref> The river water temperature in 1983 was significantly higher than normal, due to a large portion of the water having come from overflows of warmer surface water over the spillways of Glen Canyon Dam, rather than the colder lower levels which feed the penstocks.<ref name="Ghiglieri211"/>

Glen Canyon Dam has also impacted the Colorado River well downstream of the Grand Canyon. When the gates of the dam were closed in 1963, the resulting reductions in river flow effectively dried up the [[Colorado River Delta]], the large [[estuary]] formed by the Colorado River at the [[Gulf of California]] (Sea of Cortez) in Mexico. Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam, about {{convert|4|to|6|e6acre feet|km3}} reached the delta each year, despite heavy water use in California and Arizona.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/salton/DecidingAboutCoR%20Delta.html|title=Deciding About the Colorado River Delta|author=Newcom, Joshua|publisher=San Diego State University|year=1999|access-date=2016-09-01}}</ref> Because Glen Canyon Dam made possible an increased utilization of water from the Colorado River system, not enough water is left to flow to the delta in a normal year, and about {{convert|3000|mi2|km2}} of ecologically productive [[wetland]]s have disappeared. In 2014 an intentional "pulse flow" was released into the delta to restore some of these wetlands; the viability of such flows have been controversial, considering the already high demand for Colorado River water.<ref>{{cite news|author=Howard, Brian Clark|title=Historic "Pulse Flow" Brings Water to Parched Colorado River Delta|work=National Geographic|date=2014-03-24|access-date=2016-09-03|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140322-colorado-river-delta-pulse-flow-morelos-dam-minute-319-water/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190616/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140322-colorado-river-delta-pulse-flow-morelos-dam-minute-319-water/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 24, 2014}}</ref>

==Restoration efforts==
[[Image:Glen Canyon Dam HFE.jpg|thumb|right|alt=View from above of a high water release into the Colorado River.|River outlet works are open during high flow experiment in December 2012.]]
On March 26, 1996, the [[penstock]]s and two of the outlet works' bypass tubes at Glen Canyon Dam were opened to maximum capacity, causing a flood of {{convert|45000|cuft/s|m3/s}} to move down the Colorado River. This was the first of the Glen Canyon Adaptive Management Program "high flow experiments", a controlled effort to assist the recovery of the damaged riverine ecosystem by mimicking the floods that once swept through the canyons each spring.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.watereducation.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/riverreport_winter_web.pdf|title=Balancing a Complex Set of Interests: Glen Canyon Dam and Adaptive Management|author=Pitzer, Gary|publisher=Water Education Foundation|work=Colorado River Project River Report|year=2011|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The flow appeared to have scoured clean numerous pockets of encroaching vegetation, carried away rockslides that had become dangerous to boaters, and rearranged sand and gravel bars along the river, and was initially believed to be an environmental success. However, in the following months it was discovered that the initial results were misleading.<ref>{{cite web
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411105123/http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/grandcan/flood.html
 |archive-date=2013-04-11
 |url=http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/grandcan/flood.html
 |title=Controlled Flood: Can Large Releases of Water Restore Habitats in Grand Canyon?
 |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
 |work=Pacific Coastal & Marine Science Center
 |date=2005-04-21
 |access-date=2016-08-31
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.hcn.org/issues/230/11324
|last=Minard
|first=Anne
|title=Re-opening Glen Canyon's floodgates
|work=High Country News
|date=2002-07-08
|access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref>

Crews working in the Grand Canyon after the 1996 experiment found that the offensive vegetation had not been carried away as previously thought – only buried – and had mostly recovered within six months. The surface area of sandbars had been increased, but much of the material had been eroded from the submerged portions of the bars and deposited on top, making them unstable, rather than scoured from the riverbed as hoped.<ref>{{Cite journal
 |title=Recent Sediment Studies Refute Glen Canyon Dam Hypothesis
 |journal= Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union
 |volume=83
 |number=27
 |pages=273, 277–278
 |date=2002-06-18
 |doi=10.1029/2002EO000191
 |bibcode=2002EOSTr..83..273R
 |last1=Rubin
 |first1=David M.
 |last2=Topping
 |first2=David J.
 |last3=Schmidt
 |first3=John C.
 |last4=Hazel
 |first4=Joe
 |last5=Kaplinski
 |first5=Matt
 |last6=Melis
 |first6=Theodore S.
 |doi-access=free
 }}</ref> Subsequent releases in 2004, 2008,<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/06/man-made-flood-rushes-through-grand-canyon.html
|agency=Associated Press
|title=Man-Made Flood Rushes Through Grand Canyon
|work=Fox News
|date=2008-03-06
|access-date=2011-05-31}}</ref> 2012,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/gcdHFE/2012/
|title=Glen Canyon Dam 2012 High Flow Experimental Release
|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
|date=2013-12-10
|access-date=2016-08-31
|archive-date=October 1, 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001110000/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/gcdHFE/2012/
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/newsroom/newsrelease/detail.cfm?RecordID=48106|title=Experimental High-Flow Release from Glen Canyon Dam Benefits Important Physical and Biological Resources While Maintaining Water Responsibilities|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=2014-11-10|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-date=September 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911174856/http://www.usbr.gov/newsroom/newsrelease/detail.cfm?RecordID=48106|url-status=dead}}</ref> were timed to take advantage of summer [[North American Monsoon|monsoon storms]], and redistribute sediment carried into the Grand Canyon by the [[Paria River|Paria]] and [[Little Colorado River]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gcdamp.gov/fs/HFE-at-GlenCanyonDam.pdf|title=High Flow Releases at Glen Canyon Dam|publisher=Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program|date=March 2014|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014165301/http://www.gcdamp.gov/fs/HFE-at-GlenCanyonDam.pdf|archive-date=2016-10-14}}</ref> The high-flow experiments do not change the total amount of water outflow from Lake Powell on an annual basis, but as a consequence hydro-electric power releases during the rest of the year must be reduced. Some organizations, such as Living Rivers, continue to believe that the dam has too large and severe of an effect on the river's ecology to make restoration efforts worthwhile.<ref name="LivingRivers"/>

==Recreation==
[[Image:Lake_Powell_Map.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A map showing Lake Powell and the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|Map of Lake Powell and the [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|Glen Canyon NRA]]]]
{{further|Lake Powell|Glen Canyon National Recreation Area}}
According to the [[U.S. National Park Service]], Lake Powell is "widely recognized by boating enthusiasts as one of the premier water-based recreation destinations in the world."<ref name="nps">{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/upload/GLCA-RABR_OV_SP.pdf|title=Foundation Document Overview: Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and Rainbow Bridge National Monument|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Despite its remote location, the {{convert|1250000|acre|ha|adj=on}} [[Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]], which surrounds the reservoir, receives more than three million visitors annually.<ref name="USBRlakepowell">{{cite web|url=http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/lakepowell.html|title=Lake Powell|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|date=2008-11-04|access-date=2016-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921064853/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/lakepowell.html|archive-date=2012-09-21|url-status=dead}}</ref> Activities include boating, fishing, [[waterskiing]], [[Personal water craft|jet-skiing]], swimming and hiking. Prepared campgrounds can be found at each marina, but many visitors choose to rent a [[houseboat]] or bring their own camping equipment, find a private spot somewhere in the canyons, and make their own camp (there are no restrictions on where visitors can stay).<ref name="nps"/> About 85,000 people per year travel via boat to [[Rainbow Bridge National Monument|Rainbow Bridge]] in Utah, a large natural arch once very hard to access, but now easily reachable because one of the arms of the reservoir extends near it.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nps.gov/rabr/index.htm
|title=Rainbow Bridge National Monument
|publisher=U.S. National Park Service
|date=2010-03-10
|access-date=2011-06-24}}</ref>

Because most of the lake is surrounded by steep sandstone walls, access is limited to developed marinas. The heavily used [[Wahweap, Lake Powell|Wahweap]] and Antelope Point Marinas are located in Arizona, close to Page. Two other marinas at [[Halls Crossing, Utah|Halls Crossing]] and [[Bullfrog Marina|Bullfrog]] are located further upstream in Utah. The [[Hite, Lake Powell|Hite]] Marina, located at the upper end of the reservoir near the [[Hite Crossing Bridge]], is now disused since the water level is usually too low for boats to launch there. Other facilities at Dangling Rope and Rainbow Bridge are accessible only by boat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/planyourvisit/lake-powell-marinas.htm|title=Lake Powell Marinas|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Aside from the bridges at either end of the lake, a car-and-passenger ferry between Halls Crossing and Bullfrog is the only way for vehicles to cross Lake Powell.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.udot.utah.gov/main/f?p=100:pg:0:::1:T,V:2257,|title=Lake Powell Ferry Crossing Information|publisher=Utah Department of Transportation|date=2016-08-12|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>

More than 500,000 people tour the [[Carl Hayden]] Visitor Center at Glen Canyon Dam each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/gcdbrochure.pdf|title=Glen Canyon Dam, Powerplant and Lake Powell Visitor Brochure|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The Bureau of Reclamation provides guided tours of the dam; stringent security measures have been in place since the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usbr.gov/uc/rm/crsp/gc/pdf/vcsched.pdf|title=Glen Canyon Dam Guided Tours|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Reclamation|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/planyourvisit/guidedtours.htm|title=Guided Tours|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> The base of the dam can also be reached via boat from Lee's Ferry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/planyourvisit/kayaking.htm|title=Kayaking|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref> Because of the cold, clear water released from Lake Powell, the stretch of the Colorado River between Glen Canyon Dam and Lee's Ferry has become an excellent [[rainbow trout]] fishery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/planyourvisit/lees-ferry.htm|title=Lees Ferry|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gcdamp.gov/keyresc/tf.html|title=Lees Ferry Trout Fishery|publisher=Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program|date=2013-04-04|access-date=2016-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130213445/http://www.gcdamp.gov/keyresc/tf.html|archive-date=2016-11-30}}</ref> Trout are not native to the Colorado River system; they were stocked in the river below Glen Canyon Dam after the dam was built. Other non-native fish such as [[smallmouth bass]], [[striped bass]], [[largemouth bass]] and [[black crappie]] were planted in Lake Powell to provide sport fishing opportunities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/nature/nonativeanimals.htm|title=Nonnative Aquatic Species|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>

<!-- Currently most marinas on the lake lack [[Automatic Identification System]] monitoring stations that transmit boat positions to the AIS websites for the boating community. A substantial number of vessels on the lake do not have AIS transponders, so extra precautions must be taken with respect to boating safety. The telemetry system used to monitor the hydrologic activity of the lake by the federal government agencies in charge of the dam does not at this point support AIS monitoring, creating an additional safety gap. -->
Like many U.S. lakes and reservoirs, Lake Powell has an active problem with [[Zebra mussel|zebra]] and [[quagga mussel]]s,  invasive [[bivalve]] species originating in eastern Europe. Mussels are most commonly transferred from lake to lake attached to the hulls, and inside the [[bilge]] area of boats. Lake users are required by law to clean, drain and dry their vessels, both before and after taking a trip to Lake Powell.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/nature/mussel-update.htm|title=Mussel Update|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Mussel infestations tend to clog the hydroelectric intakes at the Glen Canyon Dam, as well as the propellers and exhaust pipes of boats, requiring expensive de-contamination. Their impact on the lake ecology appears to be low, or even beneficial due to their providing a food source for fish.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/glca/learn/nature/mussel-frequently-asked-questions.htm|title=Mussel Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|work=Glen Canyon National Recreation Area|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref>

==See also==
{{stack|{{Portal|Arizona|Water|Renewable energy}}}}
* [[List of tallest dams]]
* [[List of dams and reservoirs in the United States]]
** [[List of the tallest dams in the United States]]
** [[List of largest reservoirs in the United States]]
* [[List of dams in the Colorado River system]]
* [[Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad]]
* [[Colorado Plateau]]
* [[Katie Lee (singer)|Katie Lee]], an activist against the dam
* [[Navajo Generating Station]]

==References==
{{reflist|22em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book
|last=Adler
|first=Robert W.
|title=Restoring Colorado River ecosystems: a troubled sense of immensity
|publisher=Island Press
|year=2007
|isbn=978-1-59726-057-2}}
* {{cite book
|author1=Billington, David P. |author2=Jackson, Donald Conrad
|title=Big dams of the New Deal era: a confluence of engineering and politics
|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-8061-3795-7}}
* {{cite book
|author1=Billington, David P. |author2=Jackson, Donald C. |author3=Melosi, Martin V.
|title=The History of Large Federal Dams: Planning, Design, and Construction
|publisher=Government Printing Office
|year=2005
|isbn=978-0-16-072823-5}}
* {{cite book
|author=Bryant, Kathleen
|title=Moon Four Corners: Including Navajo and Hopi Country, Moab, and Lake Powell
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* {{cite book
|author1=Gahan, Andrew H. |author2=Rowley, William D. |title=The Bureau of Reclamation: From Developing to Managing Water, 1945–2000
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* {{cite book |title=Over the Edge: Death in Grand Canyon (Revised and Updated) |last=Ghiglieri |first=Michael P. |author2=Myers, Thomas M. |year=2001 |publisher=Puma Press |location=Flagstaff |isbn=978-0-9700973-1-6 |pages=211–215 |edition=1st, tenth revision}}
* {{cite book
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* {{cite book
|author=Harvey, Mark W. T.
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* {{cite book
|author=Martin, Russell
|title=A Story That Stands Like A Dam: Glen Canyon and the Struggle for the Soul of the West
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* {{cite book
|author=National Research Council; Committee to Review the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies
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|year=2010
|isbn=978-0-7844-1141-4}}
{{refend}}

===Notes===
{{reflist|group=n}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Glen Canyon Dam}}
* [http://damoverlook.com Glen Canyon Dam Overlook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318023309/http://damoverlook.com/ |date=March 18, 2014 }}
* [http://www.usbr.gov/uc/envdocs/eis/gc/gcdOpsFEIS.html 1995 Glen Canyon EIS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222124723/http://www.usbr.gov/uc/envdocs/eis/gc/gcdOpsFEIS.html |date=February 22, 2013 }}
* [http://explorepdx.com/glen.html Glen Canyon Before Flooding – 1962] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427212022/http://explorepdx.com/glen.html |date=April 27, 2017 }}
* [http://www.glencanyon.org/ Glen Canyon Institute]
* [http://archive.library.nau.edu/cdm/ref/collection/cpa/id/62176 Challenge at Glen Canyon] – USBR film about the 1983 floods
* [http://www.nps.gov/glca/index.htm Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]
* [http://www.glencanyonnha.org/ Glen Canyon Natural History Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412024922/http://www.glencanyonnha.org/ |date=April 12, 2013 }}
* [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo40565 Geologic Map of the Glen Canyon Dam, 30ʹ x 60ʹ Quadrangle, Coconino County, Northern Arizona]
* [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/gpo55553/ds471.pdf Historical Physical and Chemical Data for Water in Lake Powell and from Glen Canyon Dam Releases, Utah-Arizona, 1964–2013]
* [http://lakepowell.water-data.com Lake Powell daily water levels]

{{CRSP}}
{{Colorado River system}}
{{Generating stations in Arizona}}
{{Glen Canyon National Recreation Area}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Crossings navbox
|structure=Crossings
|place=[[Colorado River]]
|bridge=Glen Canyon Dam
|bridge signs=
|upstream=Charles Hall Ferry
|upstream signs={{Jct|state=UT|SR|276}}
|downstream=[[Glen Canyon Dam Bridge]]
|downstream signs={{Jct|country=USA|US|89}}
}}

[[Category:Arch-gravity dams]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Coconino County, Arizona]]
[[Category:Dams on the Colorado River]]
[[Category:Dams in Arizona]]
[[Category:Glen Canyon National Recreation Area]]
[[Category:Hydroelectric power plants in Arizona]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Arizona]]
[[Category:U.S. Route 89]]
[[Category:United States Bureau of Reclamation dams]]
[[Category:Dams completed in 1966]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1966]]
[[Category:Colorado River Storage Project]]
[[Category:1966 establishments in Arizona]]
[[Category:Lake Powell]]