View source for Luiseño language

{{short description|Uto-Aztecan language of California}}
{{More footnotes|date=September 2008}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Luiseño
| altname          = Luiseño–Juaneño
| nativename       = {{lang|lui|Cham{{saltillo}}teela}}
| states           = United States
| region           = Southern [[California]]
| ethnicity        = 2,500 [[Luiseño people|Luiseño]] and [[Juaneño people|Juaneño]] (2007)<ref name=e25/>
| extinct          = early 2010s
| ref              = e25
| familycolor      = Uto-Aztecan
| fam2             = [[Northern Uto-Aztecan languages|Northern]]
| fam3             = [[Takic languages|Takic]]?
| fam4             = [[Cupan languages|Cupan]]
| map              = Luiseño language.png
| mapcaption       = 
| iso2             = lui
| iso3             = lui
| glotto           = luis1253
| glottorefname    = Luiseno-Juaneño
| dia1             = Luiseño
| dia2             = Juaneño
| notice           = IPA
| map2             = Lang Status 20-CR.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Luiseño is classified as Critically Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}<ref>{{cite report |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |publisher=UNESCO |edition=3rd |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |date=2010 |page=11}}</ref>
| revived          = 2010s
}}
{{Wikibook|Chamteela}}

The '''Luiseño language''' is a [[Uto-Aztecan language]] of [[California]] spoken by the [[Luiseño]], a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people who at the time of first contact with the Spanish in the 16th century inhabited the coastal area of southern California, ranging {{convert|50|mi}} from the southern part of [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], [[California]], to the northern part of [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]], [[California]], and inland {{convert|30|mi}}. The people are called "Luiseño", owing to their proximity to the [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]].

The language went [[extinct language|extinct]] in the early 2010's,<ref name=e25/> but an active [[language revitalization]] project is underway,<ref>*{{Cite news
 |last        = Marisa Agha
 |title       = Language preservation helps American Indian students stick with college
 |work        = The Sacramento Bee
 |access-date  = 2012-08-08
 |date        = 2012-03-18
 |url         = http://www.sacbee.com/2012/03/18/4346500/language-preservation-helps-american.html
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120321213213/http://www.sacbee.com/2012/03/18/4346500/language-preservation-helps-american.html
 |archive-date = 2012-03-21
}}</ref> assisted by linguists from the [[University of California, Riverside]].<ref name="preserving">{{Cite web|url= http://www.californiareport.org/archive/R305161630/d|title=Preserving the Luiseno Indian Language: The California Report|work=The California Report, californiareport.org|access-date=8 May 2010}}</ref> The [[Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians]] offers classes for children, and in 2013, "the tribe ... began funding a graduate-level [[California State University, San Bernardino|Cal State San Bernardino]] Luiseño class, one of the few for-credit university indigenous-language courses in the country."<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Olson, David
| title = TRIBES: Campaign to save Native American languages
| work = Press-Enterprise, PE.com
| access-date = 2013-02-23
| date = 2013-02-15
| url = http://www.pe.com/local-news/topics/topics-tribes-headlines/20130215-tribes-campaign-to-save-native-american-languages.ece
| archive-date = 2013-02-18
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130218165430/http://www.pe.com/local-news/topics/topics-tribes-headlines/20130215-tribes-campaign-to-save-native-american-languages.ece
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> In 2012, a Luiseño video game for the [[Nintendo DS]] was being used to teach the language to young people.<ref>{{Cite news
 |last        = Deborah Sullivan Brennan
 |title       = Video games teach traditional tongue
 |work        = North County Times
 |location    = Escondido, California
 |access-date  = 2012-10-21
 |date        = 2012-09-01
 |url         = http://www.nctimes.com/news/local/sdcounty/education-video-games-teach-traditional-tongue/article_426eefc0-6476-5781-804d-cb1d5a5516a6.html
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120807074613/http://www.nctimes.com/news/local/sdcounty/education-video-games-teach-traditional-tongue/article_426eefc0-6476-5781-804d-cb1d5a5516a6.html
 |archive-date = 2012-08-07
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = Video Games Make Learning Fun
| work = SpokenFirst, Falmouth Institute
| access-date = 2012-10-21
| url = http://falmouthinstitute.com/language/2012/03/video-games-make-learning-fun/
}}</ref>

Juaneño, the Luiseño dialect spoken by the [[Acjachemen]], went extinct at an earlier date.

== Linguistic documentation ==
Linguist [[John Peabody Harrington]] made a series of recordings of speakers of Luiseño in the 1930s. Those recordings, made on [[aluminum disk]]s, were deposited in the [[United States National Archives]].<ref name="grant1991sound">{{Citation |last=Glenn |first=James R. |title=The Sound Recordings of John P. Harrington: A Report on Their Disposition and State of Preservation |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=357–366 |year=1991 |postscript=. |publisher=Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 33, No. 4 |issn=0003-5483 |jstor=30028216}}</ref> They have since been digitized and made available over the internet by the [[Smithsonian Institution]].<ref name="recordings">{{Cite web |title=Collections Search Center, Smithsonian Institution |url=http://collections.si.edu/search/results.jsp?q=Harrington%2C&dsort=&view=&date.slider=&fq=online_media_type%3A%22Sound+recordings%22&fq=online_visual_material%3Atrue&fq=language:%22Luisen~o%22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716094220/http://collections.si.edu/search/results.jsp?q=Harrington,&dsort=&view=&date.slider=&fq=online_media_type:%22Sound+recordings%22&fq=online_visual_material:true&fq=language:%22Luisen~o%22 |archive-date=16 July 2011 |access-date=8 May 2010 |work=collections.si.edu}}</ref>

==Phonology==

=== Vowels ===
Luiseño has ten vowel [[phoneme]]s, five long and five short.<ref>Eric Elliott (1999) ''Dictionary of Rincón Luiseño.'' University of California at San Diego doctoral dissertation.</ref> 
{| class="wikitable"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align="center" | {{IPA|ɪ iː}}
| align="center" | &nbsp;
| align="center" | {{IPA|ʊ uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| align="center" | {{IPA|ɛ eː}}
| align="center" | &nbsp;
| align="center" | {{IPA|ɔ ɔː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| align="center" | &nbsp;
| align="center" | {{IPA|a aː}}
| align="center" | &nbsp;
|}

Diphthongs include ''ey'' {{IPA|[ej]}}, ''ow'' {{IPA|[ow]}} and ''oow'' {{IPA|[oːw]}}.

Luiseño vowels have three lengths.

* [[vowel length|Short]]: The basic vowel length. In writing, this is the standard value of a given vowel, e.g. {{angbr|a}}.
* [[vowel length|Long]]: The vowel is held twice as long but with no change in quality. In writing, a long vowel is often indicated by doubling it, e.g. {{angbr|aa}}.
* [[vowel length|Overlong]]: The vowel is held three times as long but with no change in quality. In writing, an overlong vowel is indicated by tripling it, e.g. {{angbr|aaa}}.

Overlong vowels are rare in Luiseño, typically reserved for absolutes, such as [[interjection]]s, e.g. '' '''aaa'''shisha'', roughly "haha!" (more accurately an exclamation of praise, joy or laughter).

==== Variants ====
For some native speakers recorded in ''The Sparkman Grammar of Luiseño'', the [[allophone]]s {{IPA|[ə]}} and {{IPA|[ɨ]}} are [[Free variation|free variants]] of {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} respectively. However, other speakers do not use these variants. Sparkman records fewer than 25 Luiseño words with either {{IPA|[ə]}} or {{IPA|[ɨ]}}. For one of these words (''ixíla'' "a cough") the pronunciations {{IPA|['''ə'''xɨla]}} and {{IPA|['''ɨ'''xɨla]}} are both recorded.

[[Stress (linguistics)|Unstressed]] {{IPA|[u]}} freely varies with {{IPA|[o]}}. Likewise, unstressed {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[e]}} are free variants.

==== Vowel syncope ====
Vowels are often [[Syncope (phonetics)|syncopated]] when attaching certain [[affix]]es, notably the possessive prefixes ''no-'' "my", ''cham-'' "our", etc. Hence ''p'''o'''lóv'' "good", but ''o-plovi'' "your goodness"; ''kich'''u'''m'' "houses" ([[nominative case]]), but ''kichmi'' "houses" ([[accusative case]]).

==== Accent ====
A [[Stress (linguistics)|stress accent]] most commonly falls on the first [[syllable]] of a word. 

A single consonant between a stressed and unstressed vowel is doubled. Most are geminate, such as ''w'' {{IPA|[wː]}} and ''xw'' {{IPA|[xːʷ]}}. However, some take a glottal stop instead: ''ch'' {{IPA|[ʔt͜ʃ]}}, ''kw'' {{IPA|[ʔkʷ]}}, ''qw'' {{IPA|[ʔqʷ]}}, ''ng'' {{IPA|[ŋʔ]}}, ''th'' {{IPA|[ðʔ]}}, ''v'' {{IPA|[vʔ]}}, ''x'' {{IPA|[xʔ]}} (Elliot 1999: 14&ndash;16.)

As a rule, the possessive prefixes are unstressed. The accent remains on the first syllable of the root word, e.g. ''no'''kaa'''may'' "my son" and never'' *'''no'''kaamay''. One rare exception is the word '' '''pó'''-ha'' "alone" (< ''po-'' "his/her/its" + ''ha'' "self"), whose invariable prefix and fixed accent suggests that it is now considered a single [[lexis (linguistics)|lexical item]] (compare ''no'''ha''' ''"myself", ''po'''ha''' ''"him/herself", etc.).

=== Consonants ===
Luiseño has a fairly rich [[consonant]] inventory.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Luiseño consonant phonemes
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] 
| m {{IPAblink|m}} || n {{IPAblink|n}} || || || ng {{IPAblink|ŋ}} || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>
| p {{IPAblink|p}} || t {{IPAblink|t}} || || ch {{IPAblink|tʃ}} || k {{IPAblink|k}}, kw {{IPAblink|kʷ}} || q {{IPAblink|q}}, qw {{IPAblink|qʷ}} || {{saltillo}} {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|-
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]</small>
| (b {{IPAblink|b}}) || (d {{IPAblink|d}}) || || || (g {{IPAblink|ɡ}}) || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! <small>[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>
| (f {{IPAblink|f}}) || s {{IPAblink|s̪}} || ꟍ<ref name="s" /> {{IPAblink|s̺}} || sh {{IPAblink|ʃ}} || colspan="2" | x {{IPAblink|x}} ~ {{IPAblink|χ}}, xw {{IPAblink|xʷ}} || h {{IPAblink|h}}
|-
! <small>[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]</small>
| v {{IPAblink|v}} || th {{IPAblink|ð}} || || || || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| || l {{IPAblink|l}} || ||  y {{IPAblink|j}} || w {{IPAblink|w}} || ||
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] 
| || r {{IPAblink|ɾ}} ~ {{IPAblink|r}} || || || || ||
|}
*{{IPA|/b/, /d/, /f/, /ɡ/}} are found only in borrowed words, principally from Spanish and English.
*Both {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[tʃ]}}  are found in word initial position. However, only {{IPA|[tʃ]}} occurs intervocalically, and only {{IPA|[ʃ]}} is found preconsonantally and at word final position. Examples of these [[allophones]] in [[complementary distribution]] abound, such as ''ya{{saltillo}}ásh'' ('man {{abbr|{{sc|nom}}|nominative}}') and ''ya{{saltillo}}áchi'' ('man {{abbr|{{sc|acc}}|accusative}}').
*{{IPA|/r/}} is trilled at the beginning of a word and a tap between vowels.
*The two sibilants have also been described as dental and retroflex {{IPA|[ʂ]}} (Elliot 1999: 14).

== Orthography ==

Along with an extensive [[oral tradition]], Luiseño has a written tradition that stretches back to the [[Conquistador|Spanish settlement]] of San Diego. [[Pablo Tac]] (1822–1841), a native Luiseño speaker and Mission Indian, was the first to develop an orthography for his native language while studying in Rome to be a Catholic priest.<ref>Clifford, pp. 39-46.</ref> His orthography leaned heavily on Spanish, which he learned in his youth. Although Luiseño has no standardized spelling, a commonly accepted orthography is implemented in reservation classrooms and college campuses in San Diego where the language is taught. 

The alphabet taught in schools is:<ref>Raymond Basquez Sr, Neal Ibanez & Myra Masiel-Zamora (2018) ''ꞌAtáaxum Alphabet''. Great Oak Press</ref>
:{{saltillo}} ꞌa ch ꞌe h ꞌi k kw l m n ng ꞌo p q qw r s ꟍ (s̸)<ref name="s" /> sh th t ꞌu v w x xw y

Current [[orthography]] marks stress with an [[acute accent]] on the stressed syllable's vowel, e.g. ''chil'''ú'''y'' "speak Spanish", ''koy'''óo'''wut'' "whale". Formerly, stress might be marked on both letters of a long vowel, e.g. ''koy'''óó'''wut'', or by underlining, e.g. ''koy<u>oo</u>wut'' "whale"; stress was not marked when it fell on the first syllable, e.g. ''h'''ii'''cha'' "what" (currently ''h'''íi'''cha''). The marking of word-initial stress, like the marking of predictable glottal stop, is a response to language revitalization efforts. 

The various orthographies that have been used for writing the language show influences from Spanish, English and [[Americanist phonetic notation]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Notable Luiseño spelling correspondences
|-
! rowspan="1" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! rowspan="1" | Pablo Tac <br>(1830s)
! rowspan="1" | Sparkman <br>(1900)
! other<br>recent
! rowspan="1" | Modern
|-
| (Long vowel, e.g. {{IPA|/iː/}}) || ii || iꞏ || || ii
|-
| {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || c{{saltillo}} || č || || ch
|-
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || s{{saltillo}} || š || || sh 
|-
| {{IPA|/q/}} || q{{saltillo}} || q || || q
|-
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{saltillo}} || ʔ || || {{saltillo}}
|-
| {{IPA|/x/}} || j || x || || x
|-
| {{IPA|/ð/}} || &nbsp; || δ || ð || th
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || n{{saltillo}} || ŋ || ñ || ng
|-
| {{IPA|/j/}} || y || y || || y
|-
| {{IPA|/s̺/}} || || || z || ꟍ (s̸)<ref name="s">{{angbr|Ꟍ ꟍ}} were added to Unicode in 2024. Previously {{angbr|s̸}} with a combining diacritic was used. When fonts didn't support that, {{angbr|ş}} was used as a substitute.</ref>
|}

== Morphology ==
Luiseño is an [[agglutinative]] language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several [[morpheme]]s strung together.

== Sample texts ==
The [[Lords Prayer|Lord's Prayer]] (or the Our Father) in Luiseño, as recorded in ''The Sparkman Grammar of Luiseño''.

:Cham-na{{saltillo}} tuupanga aaukat cham-cha oi ohó{{saltillo}}vanma.
:Toshngo om chaami.
:Loví{{saltillo}}i om hish mimchapun ivá{{saltillo}} ooxng tuupanga axáninuk.
:Ovi om chaamik cham-naachaxoni choun teméti.
:Maaxaxan-up om chaamik hish aláxwichi chaam-lo{{saltillo}}xai ivianáninuk chaam-cha maaxaxma pomóomi chaami hish pom-lo{{saltillo}}xai aláxwichi.
:Tuusho kamíi{{saltillo}}i chaami chaam-lo{{saltillo}}xai hish hichakati.
:Kwavcho om chaami.

:Our-father / sky-in / being / we / you / believe / always.
:Command / you / us.
:Do / you / anything / whatever / here / earth-on / sky-in / as.
:Give / you / us-to / our-food / every / day.
:Pardon / you / us-to / anything / bad / our-doing / this as /we / pardon / them / us / anything / their-doing / bad.
:Not / allow / us / our-doing / anything / wicked.
:Care / you / us.
<!-- (THE FOLLOWING TXT COMMENTED OUT DUE TO BROKEN LINKS) Compare this version to the Lord's Prayer as recorded from native speaker Villiana Hyde in Yumayk Yumayk, page 1118 [http://www.soboba-nsn.gov/LordsPrayer.jpg]
or the version distributed to the Soboba Band of Luiseño Indians by the reservation's church [http://www.soboba-nsn.gov/LuisenoPaterNoster.jpg]. -->

==See also==
* [[Luiseño]]
* [[Mission Indians]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{citation
|last=Chung
|first=Sandra
|author-link1 = Sandra Chung
|year=1974
|title=Remarks on Pablo Tac's La lingua degli Indi Luiseños
|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics
|volume=40
|issue=4
|pages=292–307
|doi=10.1086/465326
|s2cid=143855734
}}
* {{citation
|last=Clifford
|first=Christian 
|year=2017
|title=Meet Pablo Tac: Indian from the Far Shores of California
|publisher=CreateSpace
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Hyde
|first1=Villiana Calac
|last2=Elliot
|first2=Eric 
|year=1994
|title=Yumáyk Yumáyk: Long Ago
|publisher=University of California Press
}}
* {{citation
|last=Hyde
|first=Villiana
|year=1971
|title=An Introduction to the Luiseño Language
|publisher=Malki Museum Press
}}
* {{citation
|last1=Kroeber
|first1=A. L.
|author-link1 = Alfred L. Kroeber
|last2=Grace 
|first2=George William 
|year=1960
|title=The Sparkman Grammar of Luiseño
|place=Berkeley
|publisher=UC Berkeley Press
}}
* {{citation
|last=Tagliavini
|first=Carlo 
|year=1926
|title=La lingua degli Indi Luisenos
|place=Bologna
|publisher=Cooperativa Tipografica Azzoguidi
}}
*{{cite book|last1=Sparkman|first1=Philip Stedman|title=The culture of the Luiseño Indians|url=https://archive.org/details/cultureluisedno00sparrich|access-date=24 August 2012|year=1908|publisher=The University Press}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050511005019/http://www.americanindian.ucr.edu/partnerships/tlp.html Luiseño language revitalization project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050405214001/http://www.pechanga-nsn.gov/page?pageId=1 Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians]
* [http://www.soboba-nsn.gov Soboba Band of Luiseño Indians]
* [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/languages/luiseno.php Luiseño language] overview at the [[Survey of California and Other Indian Languages]]
* {{Cite web
| title = Luiseño sound recordings
| work = Collections Search Center, Smithsonian Institution
| access-date = 2012-07-20
| url = http://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?date.slider=&date.slider=&fq=online_media_type%3A%22Sound+recordings%22&fq=online_visual_material%3Atrue&q=&q=%22Tubatulabal%22&q=%22Chumash%22&fq=language:%22Luisen%7Eo%22
}}
*[http://www.language-archives.org/language/lui OLAC resources in and about the Luiseno language]

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{{Uto-Aztecan languages}}
{{Languages of California}}
{{Traditional Narratives (California groups)}}
{{Populations of Native California Groups}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Luiseno, Language}}
[[Category:Luiseño]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages|Takic]]
[[Category:Takic languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Uto-Aztecan languages]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]