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Spikenard (*Nardostachys jatamansi*) essential oil

Spikenard, also called nard, nardin, and muskroot, is a class of aromatic amber-colored essential oil derived from Nardostachys jatamansi, a flowering plant in the honeysuckle family which grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. The oil has been used over centuries as a perfume, a traditional medicine, or in religious ceremonies across a wide territory from India to Europe.^[1]^[2]^[3] Historically, the name nard has also referred to essential oils derived from other species including the closely related valerian genus, as well as Spanish lavender; these cheaper, more common plants have been used in perfume-making, and sometimes to adulterate true spikenard.

Etymology

The name nard is derived from Latin nardus, from Ancient Greek νάρδος (nárdos). This word may ultimately derive either from Sanskrit नलद (nálada 'Indian spikenard'), or from Naarda, an ancient Assyrian city (possibly the modern town of Dohuk, Iraq).^[4] The "spike" in the English name refers to the inflorescence or flowering stem of the plant.

Description

Nardostachys jatamansi is a flowering plant of the honeysuckle family that grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. In bloom, the plant grows to about 1 meter (3 ft) in height and has small, pink, bell-shaped flowers. It is found at an altitude of about 3,000 to 5,000 m (9,800 to 16,400 ft). Its rhizomes can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic, amber-colored essential oil with a thick consistency.

Oil constituents

Nard oil is used as a perfume, an incense, and in Ayurvedic practices.^[5] Sesquiterpenes contribute to the major portion of the volatile compounds,^[6] with the eponymous jatamansone (also known as (-)-valeranone) being dominant. Many coumarins are also present in the oil. The alkaloid actinidine has been isolated from the oil, and valerenal alongside valerenic acid (formerly called nardal and nardin respectively).^[7] Among the other phytochemical products are found in the rhizomes are: nardostachysin, a terpenoid ester;^[8] nardostachnol; nardostachnone; jatamansic acid and jatamansinone.

History

In ancient Rome, nardus was used to flavor wine, and occurs frequently in the recipes of Apicius.^[9]^[10] During the early Roman empire, nardus was the main ingredient of a perfume (unguentum nardinum).^[9]

Pliny's Natural History lists several species of nardus used in making perfume and spiced wine: Indian nard, a stinking nard called 'ozaenitidos' which is not used, a false nard ('pseudo-nard') with which true nard is adulterated, and several herbs local to Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean which are also called nardus, namely Syrian nard, Gallic nard, Cretan nard (also called 'agrion' or 'phun'), field nard (also called 'bacchar'), wild nard (also called 'asaron'), and Celtic nard. Celtic nard is the only species Pliny mentions which he does not describe when listing the species of nard in book 12 of Natural History suggesting it is synonymous with another species, probably with the species Pliny refers to as 'hirculus', a plant Pliny attests to growing in the same region as Gallic nard and which he says is used to adulterate Gallic nard. Both are widely assumed to be cultivars or varieties of Valeriana celtica.^[11]^[12]^[13] ^{[non-primary source needed]}

Indian nard refers to Nardostachys jatamansi, stinking nard possibly to Allium victorialis, false nard to Lavandula stoechas, Syrian nard to Cymbopogon nardus, Gallic nard to Valeriana celtica, Cretan nard to Valeriana italica (syn. V. dioscoridis, V. tuberosa), and wild nard to Asarum europaeum. Field nard, or 'bacchar', has not been conclusively identified and must not be confused with species now called "baccharises" referring to species native to North America.^[11]^[12]^[13]

Culture

Spikenard is mentioned in the Bible as being used for its fragrance.

Then Mary took about a pint of pure nard, an expensive perfume; she poured it on Jesus' feet and wiped his feet with her hair. And the house was filled with the fragrance of the perfume.
— Gospel of John 12:3 NIV

While he was in Bethany, reclining at the table in the home of Simon the Leper, a woman came with an alabaster jar of very expensive perfume, made of pure nard. She broke the jar and poured the perfume on his head.
— Gospel of Mark 14:3 NIV

In the Iberian iconographic tradition of the Catholic Church, the spikenard is used to represent Saint Joseph.^[14] The Vatican has said that the coat of arms of Pope Francis includes the spikenard in reference to Saint Joseph.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Nard (Italian nardo) is also mentioned in the Inferno of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy:

erba né biado in sua vita non pasce,
ma sol d’incenso lagrime e d’amomo,
e nardo e mirra son l’ultime fasce.

He tastes, but tears of frankincense alone
And odorous amomum: swaths of nard
And myrrh his funeral shroud.^[17]

Spikenard is also mentioned as an herb protecting Saint Thecla from wild beasts in the apocryphal text The Acts of Paul and Thecla.^[18]

References

^ Pathak, Shilpi; Godela, Ramreddy (January 2024). "Nardostachys jatamansi: Phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal uses, and pharmacological activities: A comprehensive review". Fitoterapia. 172 105764. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2023.105764. PMID 38042505. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
^ Wang, Miao; Yang, Tian-Tain; Rao, Yao; Wang, Zhi-Mei; Dong, Xueqi; Zhang, Li-Hua; Han, Lifeng; Zhang, Yi; Wang, Tao; Zhu, Yan; Gao, Xiu-Mei; Li, Tian-Xiang; Xu, Yan-Tong; Wu, Hong-Hua (November 2021). "A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and the analytical methods of the genus Nardostachys". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 280 114446. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2021.114446. PMID 34339792. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
^ Dafni, Amots; Böck, Barbara (November 2019). "Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 15 (1) 57: 57. doi:10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8. PMC 6882220. PMID 31775790.
^ The origin of most of these quotes is William Thomas Fernie, in his book Herbal Simples (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897), page 298: "By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant 'Nard'. Mark the Evangelist mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution."
^ Dalby, Andrew (2000), Dangerous tastes: the story of spices, London: British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2720-0 (US ISBN 0-520-22789-1) pp. 83–88
^ Purnima; Bhatt, Meenakshi; Kothiyal, Preeti (2015). "A review article on phytochemistry and pharmacological profiles of Nardostachys jatamansi DC-medicinal herb". Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. S2CID 40028864.
^ Kadam, SH; Paknikar, SK; Rao, GV (November 2013). "Revised structures of nardal and nardin: identity with valerenal and valerenic acid". Natural Product Communications. 8 (11): 1513–4. doi:10.1177/1934578X1300801103. PMID 24427929.
^ Chatterjee, Asima; Basak, Bidyut; Saha, Munmun; Dutta, Utpal; Mukhopadhyay, Chaitali; Banerji, Julie; Konda, Yaeko; Harigaya, Yoshihiro (1 November 2000). "Structure and Stereochemistry of Nardostachysin, a New Terpenoid Ester Constituent of the Rhizomes of Nardostachys jatamansi". Journal of Natural Products. 63 (11): 1531–1533. doi:10.1021/np990503m. PMID 11087600. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
^ ^a ^b ""Nardinus"". Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary at perseus.tufts.edu.
^ "Apicius; De Re Coquinaria". Nemeton. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b "Naturalis Historia; Book 12". Perseus. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
^ ^a ^b "Naturalis Historia; Book 14". Perseus. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
^ ^a ^b "Naturalis Historia; Book 21". Perseus. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
^ ^a ^b "Lo Stemma di Papa Francesco". L'Osservatore Romano. Retrieved 18 March 2013. (In Italian: il fiore di nardo indica San Giuseppe ... Nella tradizione iconografica ispanica, infatti, San Giuseppe è raffigurato con un ramo di nardo in mano, translates as "the spikenard represents Saint Joseph ... In the Hispanic iconographic tradition, in fact, St Joseph is depicted with a branch of spikenard in his hand").
^ "Vatican releases Pope Francis' coat of arms, motto and ring". The Daily Telegraph. 18 March 2013. Archived from the original on 21 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ "Pope stresses simplicity, ecumenism in inaugural Mass plans". National Catholic Reporter. 18 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ tr. H. F. Cary) (Dante Alighieri (1845). The Vision, Or, Hell, Purgatory and Paradise of Dante Alighieri. D. Appleton & Company. p. 171.)
^ "Thecla → Paul and Thecla, Acts of". Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. doi:10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_036530. Retrieved 2024-01-25.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{short description|Type of essential oil}}
 [[Image:SpikenardEssentialOil.png|thumb|130px|right|Spikenard (''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'') essential oil]]
-{{For multi|American spikenard|Aralia racemosa|False spikenard|Maianthemum racemosum|Japanese spikenard (Udo)|Aralia cordata}}
+{{For-multi|American spikenard|Aralia racemosa|False spikenard|Maianthemum racemosum|Japanese spikenard (Udo)|Aralia cordata}}
-'''Spikenard''', also called '''nard''', '''nardin''', and '''muskroot''', is a class of aromatic amber-colored [[essential oil]] derived from ''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'', a [[flowering plant]] in the [[Caprifoliaceae|honeysuckle]] family which grows in the [[Himalayas]] of [[Nepal]], [[China]], and [[India]]. The oil has been used over centuries as a [[perfume]], a [[traditional medicine]], or in religious ceremonies across a wide territory from India to Europe. Historically, the name ''nard'' has also referred to essential oils derived from other species including the closely related [[Valeriana|valerian]] genus, as well as [[Lavandula stoechas|Spanish lavender]]; these cheaper, more common plants have been used in perfume-making, and sometimes to [[Adulterant|adulterate]] true spikenard.
+'''Spikenard''', also called '''nard''', '''nardin''', and '''muskroot''', is a class of aromatic amber-colored [[essential oil]] derived from ''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'', a [[flowering plant]] in the [[Caprifoliaceae|honeysuckle]] family which grows in the [[Himalayas]] of [[Nepal]], [[China]], and [[India]]. The oil has been used over centuries as a [[perfume]], a [[traditional medicine]], or in religious ceremonies across a wide territory from India to Europe.<ref name="Pathak_2024">{{cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Shilpi |last2=Godela |first2=Ramreddy |title=''Nardostachys jatamansi'': Phytochemistry, ethnomedicinal uses, and pharmacological activities: A comprehensive review |journal=Fitoterapia |date=January 2024 |volume=172 |article-number=105764 |doi=10.1016/j.fitote.2023.105764 |pmid=38042505 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0367326X23003398 |access-date=9 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Miao |last2=Yang |first2=Tian-Tain |last3=Rao |first3=Yao |last4=Wang|first4=Zhi-Mei |last5=Dong|first5=Xueqi|last6=Zhang|first6=Li-Hua|last7=Han|first7=Lifeng|last8=Zhang|first8=Yi|last9=Wang|first9=Tao|last10=Zhu|first10=Yan |last11=Gao|first11=Xiu-Mei|last12=Li|first12=Tian-Xiang|last13=Xu|first13=Yan-Tong|last14=Wu|first14=Hong-Hua |title=A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology and the analytical methods of the genus ''Nardostachys'' |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=November 2021 |volume=280  |article-number=114446 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2021.114446 |pmid=34339792 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378874121006759 |access-date=9 June 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dafni|first1=Amots |last2=Böck |first2=Barbara |title=Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |date=November 2019 |volume=15  |issue=1 |page=57 |article-number=57|doi=10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8 |doi-access=free |pmid=31775790 |pmc=6882220 }}</ref> Historically, the name ''nard'' has also referred to essential oils derived from other species including the closely related [[Valeriana|valerian]] genus, as well as [[Lavandula stoechas|Spanish lavender]]; these cheaper, more common plants have been used in perfume-making, and sometimes to [[Adulterant|adulterate]] true spikenard.
 == Etymology ==
-The name ''nard'' is derived from Latin ''nardus'', from Ancient Greek [[wikt:νάρδος|νάρδος]] (''nárdos''). This word may ultimately derive either from Sanskrit नलद (''nálada'' 'Indian spikenard'), or from Naarda, an ancient [[Assyria|Assyrian]] city (possibly the modern town of [[Dohuk, Iraq]]).<ref>The origin of most of these quotes is William Thomas Fernie, in his book ''Herbal Simples'' (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897), [https://archive.org/details/b20405297/page/298/mode/2up?q=nardus page 298]: "By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant 'Nard.' St. Mark mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution."</ref> The "[[spike (botany)|spike]]" in the English name refers to the [[inflorescence]] or flowering stem of the plant.
+The name ''nard'' is derived from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|nardus}}, from [[Ancient Greek]] {{wikt-lang|GRC|νάρδος}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|nárdos}}). This word may ultimately derive either from [[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa|नलद}} ({{lang|sa-Latn|nálada}} 'Indian spikenard'), or from ''Naarda'', an ancient [[Assyria]]n city (possibly the modern town of [[Dohuk, Iraq]]).<ref>The origin of most of these quotes is [[William Thomas Fernie]], in his book ''Herbal Simples'' (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897), [https://archive.org/details/b20405297/page/298/mode/2up?q=nardus page 298]: "By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the [[Euphrates]], and many persons call the plant 'Nard'. [[Mark the Evangelist]] mentions this as ''Spikenard'', a thing of great value. In [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman [[denarius|denarii]] (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called {{lang|la|asarum}} by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution."</ref> The "[[spike (botany)|spike]]" in the English name refers to the [[inflorescence]] or flowering stem of the plant.
 ==Description==
 ''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'' is a [[flowering plant]] of the [[Caprifoliaceae|honeysuckle]] family that grows in the [[Himalayas]] of Nepal, China, and India.  In bloom, the plant grows to about 1 meter (3&nbsp;ft) in height and has small, pink, bell-shaped flowers. It is found at an altitude of about {{convert|3000|to|5000|m|abbr=on}}. Its [[rhizome]]s can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic, amber-colored [[essential oil]] with a thick consistency.
 ===Oil constituents===
-Nard oil is used as a [[perfume]], an [[incense]], and in [[Ayurvedic medicine|Ayurvedic practices]].<ref>{{Citation |surname = Dalby|given = Andrew|author-link = Andrew Dalby|title = Dangerous tastes: the story of spices|publisher = British Museum Press|place = London|year = 2000|isbn = 978-0-7141-2720-0}} (US {{ISBN|0-520-22789-1}}) pp.&nbsp;83–88</ref> [[Sesquiterpene]]s contribute to the major portion of the [[Volatile organic compound|volatile compounds]],<ref name="Purnima_2015">{{cite journal |last1=Purnima |last2=Bhatt |first2=Meenakshi |last3=Kothiyal |first3=Preeti |title=A review article on phytochemistry and pharmacological profiles of Nardostachys jatamansi DC-medicinal herb |journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2015 |s2cid=40028864 }}</ref> with the eponymous ''jatamansone'' (also known as (-)-valeranone) being dominant. Many [[coumarin]]s are also present in the oil. The [[alkaloid]] [[actinidine]] has been isolated from the oil, and valerenal alongside [[valerenic acid]] (formerly called ''nardal'' and ''nardin'' respectively).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kadam |first1=SH |last2=Paknikar |first2=SK |last3=Rao |first3=GV |title=Revised structures of nardal and nardin: identity with valerenal and valerenic acid. |journal=Natural Product Communications |date=November 2013 |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=1513–4 |doi=10.1177/1934578X1300801103 |pmid=24427929 |access-date=5 October 2023 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1934578X1300801103|doi-access=free }}</ref> Among the other phytochemical products are found in the rhizomes are: nardostachysin, a [[terpene|terpenoid]] [[ester]];<ref name="Nardostachysin_2000">{{cite journal |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Asima |last2=Basak |first2=Bidyut |last3=Saha |first3=Munmun |last4=Dutta |first4=Utpal |last5=Mukhopadhyay |first5=Chaitali |last6=Banerji |first6=Julie |last7=Konda |first7=Yaeko |last8=Harigaya |first8=Yoshihiro |title=Structure and Stereochemistry of Nardostachysin, a New Terpenoid Ester Constituent of the Rhizomes of ''Nardostachys jatamansi'' |journal=Journal of Natural Products |date=1 November 2000 |volume=63 |issue=11 |pages=1531–1533 |doi=10.1021/np990503m |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/np990503m |access-date=5 October 2023}}</ref> nardostachnol; nardostachnone; jatamansic acid and jatamansinone.
+Nard oil is used as a [[perfume]], an [[incense]], and in [[Ayurvedic medicine|Ayurvedic practices]].<ref>{{Citation |surname = Dalby|given = Andrew|author-link = Andrew Dalby|title = Dangerous tastes: the story of spices|publisher = British Museum Press|place = London|year = 2000|isbn = 978-0-7141-2720-0}} (US {{ISBN|0-520-22789-1}}) pp.&nbsp;83–88</ref> [[Sesquiterpene]]s contribute to the major portion of the [[Volatile organic compound|volatile compounds]],<ref name="Purnima_2015">{{cite journal |last1=Purnima |last2=Bhatt |first2=Meenakshi |last3=Kothiyal |first3=Preeti |title=A review article on phytochemistry and pharmacological profiles of Nardostachys jatamansi DC-medicinal herb |journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2015 |s2cid=40028864 }}</ref> with the eponymous ''jatamansone'' (also known as (-)-valeranone) being dominant. Many [[coumarin]]s are also present in the oil. The [[alkaloid]] [[actinidine]] has been isolated from the oil, and valerenal alongside [[valerenic acid]] (formerly called ''nardal'' and ''nardin'' respectively).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kadam |first1=SH |last2=Paknikar |first2=SK |last3=Rao |first3=GV |title=Revised structures of nardal and nardin: identity with valerenal and valerenic acid. |journal=Natural Product Communications |date=November 2013 |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=1513–4 |doi=10.1177/1934578X1300801103 |pmid=24427929 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Among the other phytochemical products are found in the rhizomes are: nardostachysin, a [[terpene|terpenoid]] [[ester]];<ref name="Nardostachysin_2000">{{cite journal |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Asima |last2=Basak |first2=Bidyut |last3=Saha |first3=Munmun |last4=Dutta |first4=Utpal |last5=Mukhopadhyay |first5=Chaitali |last6=Banerji |first6=Julie |last7=Konda |first7=Yaeko |last8=Harigaya |first8=Yoshihiro |title=Structure and Stereochemistry of Nardostachysin, a New Terpenoid Ester Constituent of the Rhizomes of ''Nardostachys jatamansi'' |journal=Journal of Natural Products |date=1 November 2000 |volume=63 |issue=11 |pages=1531–1533 |doi=10.1021/np990503m |pmid=11087600 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/np990503m |access-date=5 October 2023}}</ref> nardostachnol; nardostachnone; jatamansic acid and jatamansinone.
 ==History==
 In ancient Rome, ''nardus'' was used to flavor wine, and occurs frequently in the recipes of [[Apicius]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=nardinus&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059|title="Nardinus"|website=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary at perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.celtnet.org.uk/recipes/apicius-coquinaria.php|title=Apicius; De Re Coquinaria|publisher=Nemeton|access-date=5 November 2011}}</ref> During the early [[Roman Empire|Roman empire]], ''nardus'' was the main ingredient of a perfume (''unguentum'' ''nardinum'').<ref name=":1" />
-[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Natural History (Pliny) |''Natural History'']] lists several species of ''nardus'' used in making perfume and [[Hippocras|spiced wine]]: Indian nard, a stinking nard called 'ozaenitidos' which is not used, a false nard ('pseudo-nard') with which true nard is adulterated, and several herbs local to Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean which are also called ''nardus'', namely Syrian nard, Gallic nard, Cretan nard (also called 'agrion' or 'phun'), field nard (also called 'bacchar'), wild nard (also called 'asaron'), and Celtic nard. Celtic nard is the only species Pliny mentions which he does not describe when listing the species of nard in book 12 of ''Natural History'' suggesting it is synonymous with another species, probably with the species Pliny refers to as 'hirculus', a plant Pliny attests to growing in the same region as Gallic nard and which he says is used to adulterate Gallic nard. Both are widely assumed to be cultivars or varieties of ''[[Valeriana celtica]]''.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D12|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 12|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D14|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 14|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D21|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 21|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref>
+[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Natural History (Pliny)|''Natural History'']] lists several species of ''nardus'' used in making perfume and [[Hippocras|spiced wine]]: Indian nard, a stinking nard called 'ozaenitidos' which is not used, a false nard ('pseudo-nard') with which true nard is adulterated, and several herbs local to Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean which are also called ''nardus'', namely Syrian nard, Gallic nard, Cretan nard (also called 'agrion' or 'phun'), field nard (also called 'bacchar'), wild nard (also called 'asaron'), and Celtic nard. Celtic nard is the only species Pliny mentions which he does not describe when listing the species of nard in book 12 of ''Natural History'' suggesting it is synonymous with another species, probably with the species Pliny refers to as 'hirculus', a plant Pliny attests to growing in the same region as Gallic nard and which he says is used to adulterate Gallic nard. Both are widely assumed to be cultivars or varieties of ''[[Valeriana celtica]]''.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D12|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 12|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D14|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 14|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D21|title=Naturalis Historia; Book 21|publisher=Perseus|access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref>
+{{Primary source inline|reason=Need confirm and secondary. Vandalizable subject matter.|date=March 2024}}
-Indian nard refers to ''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'', stinking nard possibly to ''[[Allium victorialis]]'', false nard to ''[[Lavandula stoechas]]'', Syrian nard to ''[[Cymbopogon nardus]]'', Gallic nard to ''[[Valeriana celtica]]'', Cretan nard to ''[[Valeriana|Valeriana italica]]'' (syn. ''V. dioscoridis'', ''V. tuberosa''), and wild nard to ''[[Asarum europaeum]]''. Field nard, or 'bacchar', has not been conclusively identified and must not be confused with species now called "[[Baccharis|baccharises]]" referring to species native to North America.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />
+Indian nard refers to ''[[Nardostachys jatamansi]]'', stinking nard possibly to ''[[Allium victorialis]]'', false nard to ''[[Lavandula stoechas]]'', Syrian nard to ''[[Cymbopogon nardus]]'', Gallic nard to ''[[Valeriana celtica]]'', Cretan nard to ''[[Valeriana|Valeriana italica]]'' (syn. ''V. dioscoridis'', ''V. tuberosa''), and wild nard to ''[[Asarum europaeum]]''. Field nard, or 'bacchar', has not been conclusively identified and must not be confused with species now called "[[baccharis]]es" referring to species native to North America.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />
 == Culture ==
@@ Line 25: / Line 26: @@
 [[File:Coat of arms of Franciscus.svg|thumb|right|upright|140px|[[Coat of arms]] of [[Pope Francis]]. According to the Vatican, the plant {{small|(to the right of the star)}} is a spikenard and symbolises [[St Joseph]].]]
-Spikenard is mentioned in the Bible being used for its fragrance.
+Spikenard is mentioned in the Bible as being used for its fragrance.
-{{quote|While he was in Bethany, reclining at the table in the home of Simon the Leper, a woman came with an alabaster jar of very expensive perfume, made of pure nard. She broke the jar and poured the perfume on his head.|[[Gospel of Mark]] 14:3 [[NIV]]}}
+{{blockquote|Then [[Mary of Bethany|Mary]] took about a pint of pure nard, an expensive perfume; she [[Anointing of Jesus|poured it on Jesus' feet]] and wiped his feet with her hair. And the house was filled with the fragrance of the perfume.|[[Gospel of John]] 12:3 [[NIV]]}}
+{{blockquote|While he was in Bethany, reclining at the table in the home of Simon the Leper, a woman came with an alabaster jar of very expensive perfume, made of pure nard. She broke the jar and poured the perfume on his head.|[[Gospel of Mark]] 14:3 [[NIV]]}}
-In the Iberian [[iconography|iconographic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]], the spikenard is used to represent [[Saint Joseph]].<ref name="Vatican">{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/francesco/elezione/stemma-papa-francesco_it.html |title=Lo Stemma di Papa Francesco |publisher=L'Osservatore Romano (Vatican website) |access-date=18 March 2013}} (In Italian: {{lang|it|il fiore di nardo indica San Giuseppe ... Nella tradizione iconografica ispanica, infatti, San Giuseppe è raffigurato con un ramo di nardo in mano}}, translates as "the spikenard represents Saint Joseph ... In the Hispanic iconographic tradition, in fact, St Joseph is depicted with a branch of spikenard in his hand").</ref> The [[Holy See|Vatican]] has said that the [[coat of arms of Pope Francis]] includes the spikenard in reference to Saint Joseph.<ref name="Vatican" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Vatican releases Pope Francis' coat of arms, motto and ring  |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/the-pope/9937813/Vatican-releases-Pope-Francis-coat-of-arms-motto-and-ring.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130321131012/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/the-pope/9937813/Vatican-releases-Pope-Francis-coat-of-arms-motto-and-ring.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 21 March 2013|newspaper= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=18 March 2013 |access-date=18 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pope stresses simplicity, ecumenism in inaugural Mass plans |url= http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-stresses-simplicity-ecumenism-inaugural-mass-plans|newspaper= [[National Catholic Reporter]] |date=18 March 2013 |access-date=18 March 2013}}</ref>
+In the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[iconography|iconographic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]], the spikenard is used to represent [[Saint Joseph]].<ref name="Vatican">{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/francesco/elezione/stemma-papa-francesco_it.html |title=Lo Stemma di Papa Francesco |work=[[L'Osservatore Romano]] |access-date=18 March 2013}} (In Italian: {{lang|it|il fiore di nardo indica San Giuseppe ... Nella tradizione iconografica ispanica, infatti, San Giuseppe è raffigurato con un ramo di nardo in mano}}, translates as "the spikenard represents Saint Joseph ... In the Hispanic iconographic tradition, in fact, St Joseph is depicted with a branch of spikenard in his hand").</ref> The [[Holy See|Vatican]] has said that the [[coat of arms of Pope Francis]] includes the spikenard in reference to Saint Joseph.<ref name="Vatican" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Vatican releases Pope Francis' coat of arms, motto and ring  |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/the-pope/9937813/Vatican-releases-Pope-Francis-coat-of-arms-motto-and-ring.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130321131012/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/the-pope/9937813/Vatican-releases-Pope-Francis-coat-of-arms-motto-and-ring.html |url-status= dead |archive-date= 21 March 2013 |newspaper= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=18 March 2013 |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pope stresses simplicity, ecumenism in inaugural Mass plans |url= http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-stresses-simplicity-ecumenism-inaugural-mass-plans|newspaper= [[National Catholic Reporter]] |date=18 March 2013 |access-date=18 March 2013}}</ref>
 Nard (Italian {{wikt-lang|it|nardo}}) is also mentioned in the ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' of [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'':
-{{verse translation|erba né biado in sua vita non pasce,
+{{verse translation |lang1=it |lang2=en |1=erba né biado in sua vita non pasce,
 ma sol d’incenso lagrime e d’amomo,
-e nardo e mirra son l’ultime fasce. |He tastes, but tears of frankincense alone
+e nardo e mirra son l’ultime fasce. |2=He tastes, but tears of frankincense alone
-And odorous [[amomum]]: swaths of nard
+And odorous [[cardamom|amomum]]: swaths of nard
 And [[myrrh]] his funeral shroud.<ref>tr. [[Henry Francis Cary|H. F. Cary)]] ({{cite book|author=Dante Alighieri|title=The Vision, Or, Hell, Purgatory and Paradise of Dante Alighieri|url=https://archive.org/details/visionorhellpur00carygoog|year=1845|publisher=D. Appleton & Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/visionorhellpur00carygoog/page/n201 171]}})</ref>}}
+Spikenard is also mentioned as an herb protecting [[Saint Thecla]] from wild beasts in the apocryphal text ''The Acts of Paul and Thecla''.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Thecla → Paul and Thecla, Acts of |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_036530 |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online|doi=10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_036530 }}</ref>
 == References ==