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Hubertus van Mook
Hubertus van Mook in 1947
Lieutenant Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
In office
1944–1948
MonarchWilhelmina
Preceded byTjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer
Succeeded byLouis Beel
Personal details
Born
Hubertus Johannes van Mook

(1894-05-30)30 May 1894
Semarang, Dutch East Indies
Died10 May 1965(1965-05-10) (aged 70)
L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue, France

Hubertus Johannes "Huib" van Mook (30 May 1894 – 10 May 1965) was a Dutch administrator in the East Indies. During the Indonesian National Revolution, he served as the Acting Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1948.[1] Van Mook also had a son named Cornelius van Mook who studied marine engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[1] He also wrote about Java - and his work on Kota Gede is a good example of a colonial bureaucrat capable of examining and writing about local folklore.

Biography

Hubertus van Mook was born in Semarang in Central Java on 30 May 1894. As with many Dutch and Indos (people of European and Indonesian heritage) growing up in the East Indies, he came to regard the colony, particularly Java, as his home.[2] He studied Indology at Leiden University, and then returned to the Dutch East Indies. In 1931, he became a member of the Volksraad, the advisory body set up by the colonial administration. There he spoke in favour of greater autonomy for the Dutch East Indies and for equal treatment for different races. From 1937 to 1941 he was director of economic affairs.[3] On 29 December 1941, a royal decree named van Mook the successor to Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Alidius Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer, and appointed him Lieutenant Governor General.[4] Immediately prior to the surrender of the East Indies to the Japanese on 8 March 1942, the Dutch East Indies government in exile near Brisbane, Australia gave van Mook authority over those areas still unoccupied by the Japanese.[5] However, two weeks later, he was relieved of his lieutenant-governorship and became Minister of Colonies. On 14 September 1944, after he persuaded the Dutch government in exile to establish a provisional East Indies government, he was reappointed Lieutenant Governor-General.[6] Due to his liberal inclinations and sympathies towards Indonesian nationalism, many conservative Dutch distrusted his policies and he was never given the full title of Governor-General.[7] Because of the weakened position of the Dutch due to the Nazi invasion and occupation, much of the task of retaking the East Indies following the Japanese surrender in August 1945 was carried out by Australian and British forces. While Australian forces succeeded in occupying the Outer Islands with minimal resistance, British forces in Java and Sumatra were challenged by a nascent Indonesian Republic led by Sukarno and Hatta.

Indonesians awaiting Van Mook's return to the country.

On 1 October 1945 Van Mook arrived back in Java along with elements of the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. However, their presence generated much outrage from much of the Indonesian populace who were opposed to the restoration of Dutch colonial rule.[2] with Dutch support being limited to Christian areas like Ambon and Manado, which were at that time (not before WWII) the chief sources of recruitment for the Royal Dutch East Indies Army.,[8] even though the majority of Royal Dutch East Indies Army soldiers had always been Javanese Muslims, the largest ethnic group in the colony. Republican forces had taken control of Manado by February 1946, before being subdued by allied forces, and many Christian Manado and Ambonesse supported the Republic, including chief representative for the UN, LN Palar, Leimena, AA Maramis. On the other hand, many leading Dutch supporters were from Muslim areas, including Sultan Hamid II, Andi Azis, R. Abdulkadir Wijoyoatmojo (later chief Dutch negotiator in the talks leading to the Renville Agreement). While van Mook planned to grant independence to Indonesia, he advocated a federal Republic of the United States of Indonesia with strong political and economic ties to the Netherlands. He regarded Sukarno's Republic as economically inept and unable to ward off the Indonesian Chinese, Indonesian Indians and the rising Indonesian Communist Party, and began cultivating links with Indonesian leaders outside Java, particularly in west Java and eastern Indonesia. He organised a number of conferences aimed at offsetting the influence of the Republic.[9][10]

The above factors and violations of the Linggadjati Agreement prompted the East Indies government to launch a police action in mid-1947, which was known as Operatie Product. The KNIL and Royal Netherlands Army occupied large areas of Java and Sumatra, with the Republican army offering only weak resistance.[11] However, the Dutch were held back from full conquest of the Republic by pressure from the UN Security Council and the United States, which called for a ceasefire.[12] This led to the announcement of a ceasefire in January 1948 followed by a formal armistice. As a consequence, a conflict previously considered to be an internal Dutch affair now took on an international dimension.

The Renville Agreement, as the armistice was called, stipulated the withdrawal of Indonesian forces from Dutch-occupied territory and the establishment of a ceasefire boundary known as the Van Mook Line.[13] Because of problems caused by the differing interests of regional leaders and opposition from elements of the Dutch military and government, in 1948 Van Mook resigned.[10] Meanwhile, some time after the ceasefire, the Indonesian military secretly returned and began guerrilla operations against the Dutch. This led to a second major Dutch police action known as Operatie Kraai in December 1948.[14]

Van Mook subsequently broke links with both Indonesia and his home country, and took a job with the United Nations. However, not long after this, he died in France.[10]

Background

See also: Nederlands New Guinea National Awakening and Japanese occupation of Nederlands New Guinea

The Nederlands New Guinea independence movement began in 1 May 1963, which is commemorated as the "Day of National Awakening" (Odia: Hari Kebangkitan Nasional). Nederlands New Guinea nationalism and movements supporting independence from Dutch Hindia Belanda, such as Holandia Jayapura, the Nederlands New Guinea National Party (PNNNG), Kristen and the Nederlands New Guinea Communist Party (PKK) Komunitas Kebangkitan Kristen KKK, grew rapidly in the first half of the 20th century. Holandia Jayapura, Sarekat Kristen and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad ("People's Council") in the hope that Nederlands New Guinea would be granted self-rule.[15] Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies Belanda.[16] The most notable of these leaders were Benny Wenda and Sony Esau Mbisikmbo, two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the educational reforms of the Dutch Ethical Policy.

The occupation of Nederlands New Guinea by Japan for 31⁄2 years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its Free West Papua against the Japanese army West Papua Army Or TPNPB OPM TNPB PNPB, and within only three months of their initial attacks, the Nederlands New Guinea had occupied the Dutch East Indies. In Australia, and to a lesser extent in Papua New Guinea (Nederlands New Guinea's two dominant islands) Or Melanesia, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Although this was done more for Japanese political advantage than from altruistic support of Nederlands New Guinea or Nugini Belanda independence, this support created new Negara Persatuan Republik Papua Barat institutions (including local neighbourhood organisations) and elevated political leaders such as Benny Wenda Herman Wainggai Forkorus Jaboisembut Bucthar Tabuni Sony Esau Mbisikmbo Octovianus Mote Victor Yeimo Steven Ilay Kelly Kwalik Tom Beanal Teys Elluay Moses Kilangin Klemen Tinal Frans Kaisepo [[In West Papua Melanesia Australasia Nederlands New Guinea And Papua New Guinea. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, and political infrastructure.[17]

On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Sony Esau Mbisikmbo promised independence for Negara Persatuan Republik Papua Barat or Nederlands New Guinea, but no date was set.[18] For supporters of Benny Wenda, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese.[19]

Pre-World War II

Until after World War II the western part of the island of New Guinea was part of the Great East (Groote Oost) governorate of the Dutch East Indies. The Netherlands claimed sovereignty over New Guinea within the Administrasi Indonesia through its protection over Sultanate of Tidore, a sultanate on an island west of Halmahera in the Maluku Islands. In a 1660 treaty the Dutch East India Company (VOC) recognised the Sultanate of Tidore's supremacy over the Papuan people, the inhabitants of New Guinea. Probably this referred to some Papuan islands (Raja Ampat) near the Maluku Islands as well as coastal areas like Fakfak, through familial relations with local rulers although Tidore never exercised actual control over the interior and highlands of New Guinea. In 1872 Tidore recognised Dutch sovereignty and granted permission to the Kingdom of the Netherlands to establish administration in its territories whenever the Netherlands Indies authorities would want to do so. This allowed the Netherlands to legitimise a claim to the New Guinea area.

The Dutch established the 141st meridian as the eastern frontier of the territory. In 1898 the Netherlands Indies government decided to establish administrative posts in Fakfak and Manokwari, followed by Merauke in 1902. The main reason for this was the expansion of British and German control in the east. The Dutch wanted to make sure the United Kingdom and Germany would not move the border to the west. This resulted in the partition of the island of New Guinea.

In reality the most part of New Guinea remained outside colonial influence. Little was known about the interior; large areas on the map were white and the number of inhabitants of the island was unknown, and numerous explorations were made into the interior from the turn of the 20th century on. The indigenous inhabitants of New Guinea were Papuans, living in tribes. They were hunter-gatherers.

Pre-World War II economic activity was limited. Only coastal and island dwellers traded to some extent, mostly with the Maluku Islands. A development company was founded in 1938 to change this situation, but it was not very active. So, until World War II, New Guinea was a disregarded and unimportant territory within the Netherlands Indies.

Homeland for the Eurasians

The group that was most interested in New Guinea before the war were the Eurasians or Indo people. Before the war some 150,000 to 200,000 Eurasians were living in the Netherlands Indies. They were of mixed European and Indonesian descent and identified with the Netherlands and the Dutch way of life. In the colonial society of the Netherlands Indies, they held a higher social status than indigenous Indonesians ("inlanders"). They were mostly employed as office workers. As the educational level of indigenous Indonesians was on the rise, more and more Indonesians got jobs previously held by Eurasians. These had no other means of making a living, because, as Europeans, they were forbidden to buy land on Java. This situation caused mental and economic problems to the Eurasians. In 1923, the first plan to designate New Guinea as a settlement territory for Eurasians was devised. In 1926, a separate Vereniging tot Kolonisatie van Nieuw-Guinea (Association for the Settlement of New Guinea) was founded. In 1930, it was followed by the Stichting Immigratie Kolonisatie Nieuw-Guinea (Foundation Immigration and Settlement New Guinea). These organisations regarded New Guinea as an untouched, almost empty land that could serve as a homeland to the sidelined Eurasians. A kind of tropical Holland, where Eurasians could create an existence.

These associations succeeded in sending settlers to New Guinea and lobbied successfully for the establishment of a government agency to subsidise these initiatives (in 1938). However, most settlements ended in failure because of the harsh climate and natural conditions, and because of the fact the settlers, previously office workers, were not skilled in agriculture. The number of settlers remained small. In the Netherlands proper, some organisations existed that promoted a kind of "tropical Holland" in New Guinea, but they were rather marginal. They were linked to the NSB party and other fascist organisations.

History

Freeport Sulphur No.6 entering Freeport, Texas, harbor, 1923

The current company was created in 1981 through the merger of Freeport Minerals, formerly Texas Freeport Sulphur Company and McMoRan Oil & Gas Company, becoming Freeport-McMoRan Inc.

Early history

Freeport Sulphur Company was founded July 12, 1912 by the eldest son of Svante Magnus "E.M." Swenson, banker Eric Pierson Swenson, with a group of investors, to develop sulfur mining at Bryan Mound salt dome, along the US Gulf Coast.[20] Freeport, Texas was also established in Nov. 1912 to house workers, and serve as a port for Houston, rivaling Galveston and Corpus Christi.[21][22]

Freeport mined sulfur along the Gulf Coast using the Frasch Process, the patents for which had expired in 1912.[23] Previously, Union Sulphur Company founder and patent-holder Herman Frasch had enjoyed a monopoly on the process.[24] The company became known as Freeport Sulphur, later changing its corporate name to Freeport Minerals.

In 1922, Freeport started producing sulfur from Hoskins Mound in Brazoria County, Texas.[22]: 111–117 

Freeport Texas Company

Enterprise to support Freeport Sulphur's business and the new town's infrastructure led to the incorporation of a holding company on September 30, 1913, to join the newer assets with Freeport Sulphur. Officers of the new holding company, Freeport Texas Company, were:

The new corporation's principal assets were listed as:

  • Freeport Sulphur
  • Freeport Gas Co.
  • Freeport Sulphur Transportation Company
  • Freeport Town Site Co.
  • Freeport Terminal Co.
  • Freeport Light, Water & Ice Co.
  • South Texas Stevedore Co.
  • La Espuela Oil Co.
  • Société pour l'Importation et la Vente des Soufres
  • Houston & Brazoz Valley Ry[26]

In 1919, minority stockholders John R. Williams & Sons, First National Bank of Richmond, Virginia vice-president, W. M. Addison, Benjamin P Alsopp, E. L. Norton, and Samuel W. Travers solicited proxies to use at the April 5th annual stockholders' meeting, claiming, according to reports, that "management has refused them adequate information regarding the property. President E.P. Swenson denies that information has been thus withheld and states that the board, which represents the dominant interests, has no vacancies at the present time."[27]

1928–1931 shareholder proxy fight

In 1928, shareholder and scion of one of the founding investment firms, John Langbourne Williams & Sons, Langbourne Meade Williams, Jr. launched a proxy fight for control of the company. In 1929, he then sought help from his former supervisor at Lee, Higginson & Co., J.T. Claiborne, who then enlisted clerk John Hay Whitney – who had become one of the wealthiest men in America following the 1927 death of his father, Payne Whitney.[28] Williams eventually gained control of the company from founder Swenson, becoming its president in 1931, with Claiborne as a Vice-President, and Whitney as Chairman. Williams also served as Chairman during 1958–1967.[29][30][31]

Williams led the company's diversification, beginning with the purchase of manganese deposits in Oriente Province, Cuba.[32]

1930s

In 1932, Freeport Sulphur Company acquired the sulfur rights for Lake Grande Ecaille and vicinity in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, and escalated the development of sulfur deposits in the Grand Ecaille dome in 1933, still using the Frasch Process developed by Dr. Herman Frasch, who had, in 1895, enjoined the American Sulphur Company into a partnership, forming the Union Sulphur Company, to initiate the first successful sulfur mining at Grand Ecaille, with which Freeport, like other competitors, would compete upon expiry of the Frasch patents in 1908.[33] From its earliest inception, sulfur mining was the catalyst that developed Port Sulphur, Louisiana.[34]

1950s

The company produced nickel during World War II and potash in the 1950s.[35] In 1955, Freeport Nickel invested $119 million, of which $100 million came from the U.S. government, into construction of a nickel-cobalt mine at Moa Bay, Cuba, and a refinery at Port Nickel, Louisiana. On March 11, 1957, the U.S. government announced a contract to buy nickel and cobalt from the company.[36][37]

In 1956, the company formed the Freeport Oil Company.[35] In 1958, the company sold an oil discovery near Lake Washington in Louisiana for approximately $100 million to Magnolia Petroleum Company.[35]

In 1959, Freeport geologists confirmed the 1936 Dutch discovery of the rich Ertsberg copper and gold deposits, now known as the Grasberg mine, in extremely rugged, remote country in the Jayawijaya Mountains in what was then called the Netherlands New Guinea.[38]

1960s

  • In 1960, Fidel Castro implemented a 25% ore tax, effectively nationalizing and seizing Freeport's nickel-mining operations in Cuba.[39][36]
  • In 1961, the company entered the kaolin business after purchasing the assets of Southern Clays Inc.[35] In 1964, the company formed Freeport of Australia to pursue mining opportunities there and in the surrounding Pacific Ocean region.[35]

Development of the Ertsberg deposit

Main article: Grasberg mine

In 1967, the company negotiated a contract with the Indonesian government to develop the Ertsberg deposit.[38] In their feasibility study, Freeport geologists estimated that the orebody totaled 33 million tons averaging 2.5% copper, making it the largest above-ground copper deposit ever discovered.[40] Construction of an open pit mine began in May 1970 and in mid-1973 the mine was declared fully operational. Officials at Bechtel, the primary project contractor, called mine development at Ertsberg "the most difficult engineering project they had ever undertaken." The challenges included building a 101-kilometre (63 mi) long access road (a project that required boring kilometer long tunnels through two mountains) and constructing the world's longest single span aerial tramway. The tramways were needed to move people, supplies and ore because a 2,000-foot (610 m) cliff separates the Ertsberg mine (at 12,000 feet (3,700 m) elevation) from the mill (at 10,000 feet). Moving copper concentrate from that mill to the shipping port required installation of a 109-kilometre (68 mi) slurry pipeline – then the world's longest. Mine construction and startup cost about US$200 million. The Ertsberg project was an engineering marvel, but the mine's early financial performance was disappointing. Depressed copper prices and high operating costs kept profits marginal during the 1970s.[40][38]

In 1969, McMoRan Exploration Company was founded, which, in 1981, would merge with Freeport Minerals, formerly Freeport Sulphur, to form Freeport-McMoRan.

1970s

In 1971, the company changed its name to Freeport Minerals Company, (not to be confused with Freeport Minerals Corporation, founded in 1834).

1980s

In 1981, Freeport Minerals Company merged with the McMoRan Oil and Gas Company. The McMoRan Oil and Gas Company was founded in 1967 by three partners, William Kennon McWilliams Jr. ("Mc"), James Robert (Jim Bob) Moffett ("Mo"), who were both petroleum geologists, and Mack Rankin ("Ran"), "a specialist in land-leasing and sales operations."[41]

In 1981, the company formed a 70/30 joint venture with an affiliate of FMC Corporation to operate the Jerritt Canyon gold mine near Elko, Nevada.[42] In 1985, the company headquarters moved to New Orleans, Louisiana.[30] The company also sold a 25% interest in oil and gas assets primarily in the western United States to Britoil for $73.5 million.[43][44]

In 1989, the company sold about $1.5 billion in assets to finance development of the Grasberg mine and the Main Pass offshore sulfur-oil-gas deposit off Louisiana.[45]

1990s

In 1994, the company completed the corporate spin-off of its entire interest in Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, which owned the Grasberg mine.

In 1995, RTZ, a predecessor of Rio Tinto Group made a $450 million investment in the company.[46]

In 1997, IMC Global, a large fertilizer producer, acquired Freeport-McMoRan Inc., the former parent company that now owned the sulfur and fertilizer businesses, in a $750 million transaction. Shareholders of Freeport-McMoRan received shares of IMC Global.[47]

The Indonesian government asked Freeport to substantiate Bre-X's claims of having found the largest gold mine ever discovered. In 1997, the company announced that its prospective partner Bre-X did not have gold reserves at its Indonesian mine, as it had reported. Bre-X subsequently was exposed as a fraud and went bankrupt.[48]

In 1998, low commodity prices forced the company to suspend its dividend.[49]

2000s

In 2003, the company was subpoenaed as part of an investigation by anti-trust authorities in the United States, Canada, and Europe into price fixing in the copper industry.[50]

On March 19, 2007, the company acquired Phelps Dodge (for $25.9 Billion) and became the largest copper producer of any public company in the world. The corporate headquarters was moved from New Orleans, Louisiana to Phoenix, Arizona.[51]

2010s

In 2012, the company announced agreements to acquire affiliated companies McMoRan Exploration Company and Plains Exploration & Production Company for a total enterprise value of over $20 billion. The transaction added significantly to the company's petroleum assets.[52] The transaction was criticized as a conflict of interest due to the common ownership of the companies.[53] In 2015, the company paid a $137.5 million settlement to resolve claims that executives and directors had conflicts of interest that resulted in the company overpaying in that transaction.[54]

In 2014, the company sold its assets in the Eagle Ford shale to Encana for $3.1 billion.[55] In 2015, the company announced job cuts at its Sierrita Mine in Arizona due to low copper and molybdenum prices.[56]

On December 28, 2015, the company announced that James R. Moffett would resign as chairman of the company and be replaced by Gerald J. Ford. Moffett received $16.1 million in severance pay and cash retirement plans totaling more than $63 million. Moffett continued to consult for the company for annual fees of $1.5 million.[57]

In May 2016, the company sold a 13% interest in its Morenci Mine to Sumitomo Group for $1 billion in cash.[58]

In 2016, Freeport sold its deepwater assets, including the Marlin TLP, and the Holstein and Horn Mountain spars, to Anadarko Petroleum.

In August 2017, the company agreed to give a 51% interest in the Grasberg mine to the Government of Indonesia and build a smelter in exchange for a special permit to operate the mine until 2041.[59][60][61]

In 2018, the company ranked at number 176 on the Fortune 500 list.[62] During this year, Indonesian President Joko Widodo also planned to take control of 51% of Freeport Indonesia's equity, effectively handing over control of Freeport Control to Indonesian government. The Indonesian government will need to settle payments of $3.85 billion during the takeover process.[63] The Indonesian government finalized the process on December 21, 2018.[64]

History

After the approval of the bill for the creation of the province on 30 June 2022,[65] controversy regarding the capital of the new province resulted in mass demonstrations in Timika. Residents of the town argued that the provincial capital should be in Timika instead of Nabire, due to Timika's contribution to the province's economy through the presence of Freeport-McMoRan in their regency.[66] Protesters also argued that the last 20 years of the effort by locals to support the creation of Central Papua province was always with Timika as capital and not Nabire.[66][67] The protesters also threatened to close the Freeport mine by force if their demand to be the capital of the new province was not heard.[66][68] However, figures from Nabire argued that Nabire is more suitable as the capital because it is free from intervention from the mining company on its development and also the fact that Nabire has a higher precentage of native Papuans in its population compared to Timika.[69][70] Furthermore, six regencies of eight in the region, Nabire, Dogiyai, Deiyai, Paniai, Intan Jaya, and Puncak Jaya, prefer Nabire as capital because it has easier road access.[71] Social conflict between residents of Nabire and Timika regarding the position of the new provincial capital was described by the Rev. Dora Balubun, representative from GKI Papua regional synod, as a dangerous side effect of the creation of the new province.[72][67] In support for the creation of the new province, Wate tribe granted the government 75 hectares of land for the construction of government buildings.[73]

PEMEKARAN NEGARA SAMPAI RT RW SELURUH HAK ULAYAT TANAH ADAT BLACK MELANESIA AUSTRALASIA NEDERLANDS NEW GUINEA.

History and description

MS DOS

On IBM PC compatible personal computers from the 1980s, the BIOS allowed the user to hold down the Alt key and type a decimal number on the keypad. It would place the corresponding code into the keyboard buffer so that it would look (almost) as if the code had been entered by a single keystroke. Applications reading keystrokes from the BIOS would behave according to what action they associate with that code. Some would interpret the code as a command, but often it would be interpreted as a code to be placed on the screen at the location of the cursor, thus displaying the corresponding 8-bit character from the current code page. On the original IBM PC this was CP437.[a] In most cases typing a number greater than 255 produced the character associated with the remainder after the number is divided by 256.

Some Eastern European, Arabic and Asian computers used other hardware code pages, and MS-DOS was able to switch between them at runtime with commands like KEYB, CHCP or MODE. This causes the Alt combinations to produce different characters (as well as changing the display of any previously-entered text in the same manner). A common choice in locales using variants of the Latin alphabet was CP850, which provided more Latin character variants. (There were, however, many more code pages; for a more complete list, see code page).

PC keyboards designed for non-English use included other methods of inserting these characters, such as national keyboard layouts, the AltGr key or dead keys, but the Alt key was the only method of inserting some characters and the only method that was the same on all machines, so it remained very popular.[where?][clarification needed] This input method is emulated by many pieces of software (such as later versions of MS-DOS and Windows) that do not use the BIOS keyboard decoding.

In the ASCII standard, the numbers 0-31 and 127 are assigned to control characters, but MS DOS did not interpret the numbers this way. For instance, code point 7 is assigned to BEL. However with some applications, Alt+7 may yield a bullet character • (code point 7 on code page 437), but in others would treat this input as identical to Ctrl+G (which on a terminal produces a control character with a value of 7).[citation needed]

Windows

The Alt codes had become so well known and memorized by users that Microsoft decided to preserve them, even though it used a new and different set of code pages for Windows, such as CP1252. The old code pages were called OEM code pages; the new ones are called Windows code pages,[b] The familiar Alt+number combinations produced codes from the OEM code page (for example, CP437 in the United States),[c] matching the results from MS-DOS. But prefixing a leading zero (0) to the number (usually meaning 4 digits) produced the character specified by the newer Windows code page, allowing them to be typed as well.

For instance, the combination Alt+163 would result in ú (Latin letter u with acute accent) which is at 163 in the OEM code page of CP437 or CP850, while Alt+0163 yields the character £ (symbol for the pound sterling) which is at 163 in CP1252.[d][74]

The numbers 0 –31 and 127 are control characters in the Windows code pages. Typing these numbers with a leading zero is ignored.[citation needed]

Before Unicode was introduced, most Windows software could only create text using the repertoire of characters available in a single code page. Characters that did not exist in that page (such as a line-drawing graphic from the OEM page when the software was using the Windows code page) could not be inserted, and either were ignored or produced an unexpected character.[citation needed] Modern software uses Unicode, which assigns numbers (code points) to all the characters in all the code pages. The software has access to the glyphs corresponding to all the code points in the supported fonts, so it can produce the character specified by any Alt code less than 256 whether zero-prefixed or non-zero-prefixed.

Transition to Unicode

When Windows later transitioned to Unicode, there was a desire to extend the Alt codes to allow entry of any Unicode code point. Numbers greater or equal to 256 pick the corresponding Unicode code point (lower numbers continue to pick characters from the OEM or ANSI code pages, but if 0 is prefixed the ANSI code page greatly resembles the first 256 characters of Unicode). Some applications (RichEdit-based) like Word 2010, Wordpad, and PSPad operate this way.[75] Other Windows applications, including Notepad, Chrome, Firefox, and Microsoft Edge interpret all numbers greater than 255 modulo 256.[citation needed]

Because most Unicode documentation and the Character Map accessory show the code points in hex, not decimal, a variation of Alt codes was developed to allow the numbers to be typed in hex (using the main keyboard for A–F). To enable it, a user must set or create a string type (REG_SZ) value called EnableHexNumpad in the registry key HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Control Panel\Input Method, assign the value data 1 to it, and then reboot or log out/in.[citation needed] A leading + then indicates hex input, for example Alt++11B will produce ě (e with caron). Buka menu utama Wikipedia Cari Pemekaran Kabupaten Intan Jaya Kabupaten Nabia 5 Menu pengguna Agisiga, Intan Jaya distrik (setingkat kecamatan) di Kabupaten Intan Jaya, Provinsi Papua Tengah Halaman Pembicaraan Bahasa Pantau Riwayat

Selengkapnya Agisiga adalah sebuah Distrik di Kabupaten Intan Jaya, Yang Ingin Memisahkan Diri Dari Kabupaten Intan Jaya Pemekaran Kabupaten Baru Yaitu Kabupaten Nabia Provinsi Papua Tengah, Nugini Belanda.

Agisiga Distrik Negara 

Nederlands New Guinea

Provinsi Papua Kabupaten Intan Jaya Pemerintahan 

• Kepala distrik

- Sony Esau Mbisikmbo Populasi 

• Total

-9988 jiwa Kode Kemendagri 91.27.05 the value on [[Wikidata][ Luas - 1965km² Kampung/kelurahan 1988 Ikon rintisan Artikel bertopik distrik di Nugini Belanda ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.

Kategori: Agisiga, Intan JayaDistrik di Kabupaten Intan Jaya Terakhir diubah pada 11 Desember 2022, pukul 14.16 Wikipedia Konten tersedia di bawah CC BY-SA 3.0 kecuali dinyatakan lain. Kebijakan privasiKetentuan PenggunaanTampilan komputer (PC) https://www.sonyesaumbisikmbo.org Sony Esau Mbisikmbo Agisiga Nabia Intan Jaya Hitadipa Sugapa Negara Persatuan Republik Papua Barat Republik Papua Barat Organisasi Papua Merdeka Nugini Belanda Nederlands New Guinea Provinsi Papua Provinsi Papua Barat Provinsi Papua Timur Provinsi Papua Selatan Provinsi Papua Utara Provinsi Papua Tengah Vice President Sony Esau Mbisikmbo Dewan Hak Asasi Manusia Dan Kemanusiaan Hak Asasi Manusia PBB Perserikatan Bangsa Bangsa PBB New York Jeneva

Decorations

Honours
Ribbon bar Honour Country Date Comment
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau Netherlands 29 August 1947 Elevated from Commander
Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Netherlands
Order of the Jade 3rd class Republic of China 22 July 1939
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator Venezuela 22 August 1944

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b Kahin (2003), p. 23
  2. ^ a b Bayly and Harper (2007), p. 170
  3. ^ Cribb & Kahin (2004) p. 278
  4. ^ Schiller (1955), p. 37
  5. ^ Bayly and Harper (2007), p. 167
  6. ^ Schiller (1955), pp. 37-39
  7. ^ Kahin (2003), p. 24
  8. ^ Bayly and Harper (2007), p. 171
  9. ^ Kahin (2003), p. 27
  10. ^ a b c Keat Gin Ooi (2004), pp 1365-1386
  11. ^ Jackson (2008), p. 22
  12. ^ Spruyt (2005), p.150
  13. ^ Kahin (2003), p. 29
  14. ^ "Agressi II: Operatie Kraai. De vergeten beelden van de tweede politionele actie. Orig. edn. - ZWEERS, L". Antiqbook.nl. Archived from the original on 2012-02-08. Retrieved 2012-09-21.
  15. ^ Vandenbosch 1931, pp. 1051–106.
  16. ^ Kahin 1980, pp. 113–120.
  17. ^ Vickers 2005, p. 85.
  18. ^ Ricklefs 1991, p. 207.
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References

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Political offices
Preceded by Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies
1942–1948 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Minister of Colonial Affairs
1942–1945 		Succeeded by


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