《狼》嘅修訂比較

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喺 2024年2月27號 (二) 08:06 嘅最新修訂

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灰狼

一隻灰狼

瀕危指標

最唔使理（Least Concern） (LC)

物種分類

域(Domain):	真核域 Eukaryotic
界	動物界 Animalia
門	脊索動物門 Chordata
亞門(Subphylum):	脊椎動物亞門 Vertebrata
Infraphylum:	有頷下門 Gnathostomata
超綱Superclass:	四足總綱 Tetrapoda Chordata
綱	哺乳綱 Mammalia
目	食肉目 Carnivora
科	犬科 Canidae
屬	犬屬 Canis
種	狼 C. lupus

二元學名

Canis lupus
(Linnaeus，1758 年)

狼嘅分佈
現今分佈區原分佈區

灰狼（粵拼：fui1 long4；學名：Canis lupus），通常就噉簡稱狼，係一種源於歐亞大陸同北美洲嘅大型犬科動物，分佈喺歐亞同北美嘅溫帶地區，包括咗 38 個次物種。狼外形上嘅特徵包括咗：佢哋嘅耳仔同口鼻冇多數犬科動物咁尖，冬天會生一啲又長又濃密嘅毛，啲毛多數以灰色為主（所以個名就叫灰狼），不過都有狼係啲毛以白、紅同黑等為主色嘅。除咗噉，狼仲係現存犬科動物當中最大隻嘅：成年嘅狼公平均有 43 至 45 公斤（95 至 99 磅）咁重，而成年嘅狼乸就平均有 36 至 38.5 公斤（79 至 85 磅）咁重^[1]^[2]。

狼係犬屬動物裏面最專化嘅物種，位於食物鏈嘅頂層：狼相當強壯，能夠撞擊大隻嘅獵物同輕易噉制伏細隻過佢哋嘅動物；狼仲有高度嘅智能同社會性，佢哋有能力同同類溝通，一對對或者一家人（阿爸阿媽同啲仔女）噉樣行動，而且仲識得為咗獵食大型動物而同第啲狼羣合作，彼此之間可以互相協調，作出高度組織化同事先計劃過嘅獵食行動^[3]，所以有能力獵食一啲大隻過佢哋嘅大型有蹄類動物，好似係駝鹿噉（成年駝鹿身長閒閒哋係狼嘅兩倍），又可以輕易噉捉啲細隻嘅動物—例如係兔仔—嚟食^[4]^[5]。事實係，狼呢種有高獵食能力同智能嘅動物通常都係佢哋身處地區嘅頂級獵食者^{[e 1]}—喺多數情況下，得人類、老虎同熊人jan2有能力對佢哋造成威脅^[6]^[7]。

狼同人類嘅關係密切得嚟又千絲萬縷：喺古代，狼成日都會獵食人類所養嘅牲畜，對好多人類羣體嘅生計構成威脅，所以狼同人嘅關係曾經係相當惡劣嘅—喺古時嘅童話故事同民間傳說當中，狼多數都係扮演奸角^[8]；到咗現代，人類喺科技上嘅進步令到狼群難以再對人造成威脅，多數狼攻擊人嘅事件都係因為癲狗病而起嘅，冇癲狗病嘅狼好少可會成功殺死大人，而且佢哋仲因為人嘅打獵活動而開始驚人同遠離人^[9]；雖然係噉，狼同人嘅深遠關係令到佢哋成日出現喺大眾媒體當中，而且仲成為咗現代動物學研究得最徹底嘅物種之一^[10]^[11]。

外形

灰狼嘅骨架圖解

灰狼嘅下顎圖解

身體結構

大細

灰狼嘅體型相當大：一隻成年嘅狼身長平均有成 105 至 160 厘米（41 - 63 吋），而膊頭高度就平均係 80 至 85 厘米（31 - 33 吋）左右，條尾平均有 29 到 50 厘米（29 - 50 吋）長，而耳仔平均有 9 至 11 厘米（3.5 - 4.3 吋）高，後髀有 22 至 25 厘米（8.7 - 9.8 吋）咁長^[12]，體重平均（包括公同乸）大約係 40 公斤（88 磅）－灰狼係現存犬科動物當中最大隻嘅，得某啲大型狗品種喺體型上可以拍得住佢哋^[13]。

雖然係噉，要留意嘅係，唔同地區嘅狼體型上會有唔細嘅差異^[14]：歐洲狼平均有 38.5 公斤（85 磅）重，北美狼平均有 36 公斤（79 磅）重，而印度同阿拉伯地區嘅狼平均有 25 公斤（55 磅）重^[15]－一般嚟講，正如伯格曼法則^{[e 2]}所預期，啲狼住嘅地區緯度愈高，體型就傾向愈大^[12]；世上最大隻嘅狼位於加拿大同阿拉斯加等嘅極北之地－呢啲地區嘅狼按紀錄可以去到成超過 54 公斤（119 磅）重^[16]－體型上係中東狼或者南亞狼嘅三到六倍咁多^[17]。而無論喺任何一個狼族群，啲狼乸平均嚟講會比啲狼公輕 5 到 10 磅（2.3 - 4.5 公斤）^[16]^[18]。

形狀

灰狼喺形狀上有呢啲特徵：

灰狼形狀同郊狼以及亞洲胡狼相似，但係大隻啲，口鼻比較闊，耳仔比較短兼且呈三角形，身體軀幹比較短，條尾比較長^[13]^[19]；
狼體形廋但好強壯，背脊傾斜，而條頸充滿咗肌肉^[12]；
灰狼嘅髀長過第啲犬科嘅，令到佢可以跑得好快，同埋喺雪地上能夠順暢噉行走（有灰狼嘅地區多數冬天可以落雪）^[12]。
同狼公比起上嚟，狼乸嘅口鼻同額頭比較窄，條頸比較幼，髀比較短，同埋膊頭冇咁龐大^[20]。

頭殼同牙

灰狼嘅頭殼以犬科嚟講比較大同重，額頭闊，又具有強勁嘅牙。狼嘅頭殼平均嚟講有 23 至 28 厘米（9.1 - 11.0 吋）長同 13 至 15 厘米（5.1 - 5.9 吋）闊^[12]^[21]，啲牙又大又重，夠力咬碎骨頭，具有犬科動物當中數一數二咁勁嘅咬合力（睇下圖）^[22]^[23]；喺最後排嗰啲大牙有平嘅表面，令到狼可以𡁻嘢食^[24]。平時行路嗰陣，狼通常會將個頭擺同背脊一樣咁高或者低過背脊嘅位置，喺處於警戒狀態嗰陣先會愕高個頭^[12]。

毛

長短

狼身體唔同部位嘅毛長短不一：一般嚟講，佢哋背脊啲毛最長，背脊中部嘅毛平均長 60 至 77 毫米（2.4 - 2.8 吋），而前背同頸嗰頭嗰啲毛仲會再長少少；狼膊頭啲毛都好長，雖然多數都唔會超過 90 毫米（3.5 吋）長，但會喺頸嘅周圍形成一個冠，而某啲狼嘅膊頭毛可以有成 110 到 130 毫米（4.3 - 5.1 吋）長；狼面頰嘅毛會延長，形成一叢有少少似鬍鬚噉嘅毛；耳仔嘅內部會有由毛皮嗰度伸出嚟嘅短毛；狼每條髀都有短而有彈性嘅毛，由膝頭一路生到落去跟腱嗰度，啲狼乸嘅髀毛通常會滑過啲狼公嘅^[12]。

色水

狼啲毛喺色水上相當多變，可以係近乎純白，但又可以係金、灰、啡、或者黑都有^[25]，而通常住嘅緯度愈高，啲狼嘅毛色就愈多變^[26]。狼嘅毛色冇乜大嘅性別差異，啲狼乸嘅毛有陣時會紅少少，但總體上兩性嘅毛好少可有明顯睇得到嘅差別。不過毛色可以顯示隻狼嘅年紀－年紀愈大嘅狼愈係會喺尾嘅最尾端、鼻、同額頭呢啲地方有白毛^[27]。

季節毛

狼嘅毛會隨季節而有所變化。狼喺冬天嗰陣會生出又密又蓬鬆嘅毛，下層絨毛（^{[e 3]}最裏面嘅毛，用嚟保暖）短而護毛（^{[e 4]}最外層嘅毛）長^[12]；狼嘅冬天毛皮禦寒能力相當勁（勁過狗毛）而且防冰，喺接觸到唞氣出嘅水蒸氣嗰時，唔會有冰結喺上面，北半球極北地區嘅狼就算身處喺攝氏零下 40 度（華氏零下 40 度）低溫嘅空曠地方當中，都有能力靠將身體圈埋一嚿（用後髀掂住口鼻，同用條尾𢫏住塊面）嚟保持體溫同舒服噉存活。相比之下，暖啲嘅地區嘅狼因為唔需要咁勁嘅禦寒能力，所以啲毛會薄啲散啲^[16]。狼嘅下層絨毛同護毛多數都係喺春天到嘅時候甩落嚟，到咗秋天先至生返出嚟^[16]，值得一提嘅係，啲出緊奶嘅狼乸會保留冬天毛保留得零舍耐，不過佢哋𢆡頭嗰帶嘅毛都仲會係噉咦甩啲落嚟^[16]。

適應能力

分佈

狼今時今日嘅分佈經已遠遠冇古時咁廣：本嚟狼遍及近乎成個歐亞大陸同近乎成個北美洲嘅，但後嚟人類出於嫌狼會獵食牲畜同埋攻擊人類，而對狼進行捕獵，最後搞到狼嘅分佈範圍縮細成原本嘅三分之一；到咗家吓，狼喺西歐好多地區、墨西哥、同埋美國好多地區嗰度經已絕咗種，要喺野外同遠離人煙嘅地方先至會搵到－好似係加拿大、阿拉斯加、同美國北部等嘅地方，又或者歐亞大陸北緯 12 度至 75 度嘅地方^[28]。

棲息地

狼嘅生境好廣泛，適應能力好強：佢哋能夠住喺由海平面咁高，到離海面 3,000 米（9,800 呎）嘅地方；對狼嚟講，最緊要嘅係有動物可以俾佢哋獵食、有雪、牲畜少、同埋少人類活動；只要有呢啲條件，狼可以喺好多地形生存繁衍－例如係森林同內陸濕地，又或者包括凍原在內嘅草原地帶，以至牧地、沙漠、同佈滿岩石嘅高山等嘅地方都可以有狼嘅蹤影。喺凍嘅地方，狼有能力減少佢哋皮膚嘅血流嚟保存體溫，而且佢哋腳嘅肉墊有獨立於身體第啲部位嘅保溫系統，喺掂到冰同雪嗰時保持一定溫度，令到腳同髀唔會凍結^[24]^[28]。

食乜

有蹄類

同多數羣體打獵嘅陸上哺乳類一樣，狼主要獵食一啲食草嘅大型哺乳類。狼最鍾意獵食大型（240 - 650 公斤；530 - 1,430 磅）同中型（23 - 130 公斤；51 - 287 磅）嘅有蹄類動物，前者例子有駝鹿、馴鹿、同美洲野牛，而後者例子有紅鹿。狼所獵食嘅大型有蹄類通常大隻到身體質量同成個狼群成員嘅總身體質量相約－捉到一兩隻經已夠餵飽嗮成個狼群^[29]^[30]；狼亦都進化到好擅長獵食呢啲動物，一個狼群能夠輕易噉殺死一隻成 500 公斤（1,100 磅）重嘅駝鹿^[31]，喺食完一餐之後可以喺幾個鐘頭之內消化嗮所食嘅嘢，胃口大起上嚟可以一日食幾餐^[32]。食完之後，佢哋身體會將由呢啲動物身上食到嘅脂肪儲喺皮膚下面、心臟周圍、腸臟周圍、腎、同骨髓嗰度，而呢啲脂肪會幫助到佢哋過冬^[33]。

牲畜

另一方面，狼雖然鍾意食大型有蹄類，但佢哋曉按環境調節自己嘅獵食對象，喺多人類養牲畜嘅地區，狼會好快噉開始嘗試獵食牲畜^[34]：喺北美洲，狼主要食嘅係野生嘅大型有蹄類，但係喺亞洲同歐洲，大型有蹄類相對少，狼就變成主要食中型嘅野生有蹄類、野豬、同牲畜；而事實係研究顯示，當一個地方嘅野外愈少中大型有蹄類，嗰度嘅狼就愈會走去獵食人類養嘅牲畜^[35]^[36]。

其他動物

喺周圍環境缺少大型嘅有蹄類或者牲畜嗰陣，狼會走去食啲細隻嘅動物：研究顯示，喺有大型有蹄類同牲畜嘅地方，狼多數會鍾意獵食呢啲動物，而喺周圍環境缺少呢類動物嗰時，狼會獵食嘅包括咗嚙齒目動物、兔仔、雁形目嘅雀鳥（例子有鴨）同呢啲雀鳥嘅蛋、以及細隻過佢哋嘅食肉哺乳類（例子有狐狸）等等。當佢哋周圍環境連呢啲動物都缺少嗰時，狼仲會走去食哺乳類以及雀鳥以外嘅動物，例如係蜥蜴、蛇、青蛙、魚、甚至乎係大隻啲嘅昆蟲呀噉^[37]。例：美國內陸北部嘅明尼蘇達州嘅狼據講會食淡水溪流入面嘅白斑狗魚^[38]；阿拉斯加沿海地區嘅狼食嘅肉當中，據估計有成 20% 都係三文魚^[39]；而加拿大西岸卑詩省嘅狼食嘅肉當中，據報告有成 25% 都係嚟自個海嘅^[40]... 等等。

食腐

喺真係唔夠嘢食嗰陣，狼會去食腐肉（^{[e 5]}動物屍體上腐爛嘅肉）^[37]，而喺歐亞大陸某啲多人類活動嘅地區，狼會走去食垃圾；狼食腐嘅情況喺北美比較少見，因為北美仲有大量人類活動少、人口密度低嘅地區，所以北美嘅狼依然係以獵食大型食草動物為主^[41]。

食齋

雖然話狼出咗名係食肉動物，而且身體構造上好明顯進化成適應食肉同打獵（例如係尖得嚟又強而有力嘅狗牙），但有報告指佢哋有陣時會走去食齋：據報告，歐洲試過有狼走去食蘋果、梨、車厘子、同啤梨類生果；北美試過有狼俾人見到佢哋走去食藍莓同紅莓；亦都有研究指狼會食草嚟吸收某啲維他命^[37]^[42]。

食同類

狼有食同類^{[e 6]}嘅行為。狼通常都偏向食第啲動物，但係喺嚴酷嘅冬天當中，狼有陣時焗住要走去食同類嘅肉－研究報告指喺呢啲情況下，狼群會集體噉攻擊同殺死受咗傷或者體弱嘅狼，而且仲會食因為凍死咗或者餓死咗嘅同伴嘅屍體^[43]^[44]。

覓食

狼最主要嘅覓食方式係打獵，而且相當擅長做呢樣嘢。狼可以單獨打獵又得，成群噉打獵都得，就算係一隻獨行嘅狼，都有能力殺死駝鹿等嘅大型獵物，而且有研究指單獨或者成雙成對打獵嘅狼打獵嘅成功率可能仲高過成大群噉打獵嘅狼^[45]。

狼體能好好：行路嗰陣，狼通常會用大步跑，並且喺跑嗰時將要行前嗰隻腳擺喺跟尾嗰隻腳嘅正前方，而佢哋可以用呢個方法一路以時速 8 至 9 公里（5.0 - 5.6 哩每小時）移動^[46]，係噉行成幾個鐘頭咁耐。喺空曠嘅地方（冇積雪等嘅嘢阻住），一隻狼可以話咁快就加速到去時速 50 至 60 公里（31 - 37 哩每小時）。佢哋一吓可以跳到 5 米嘅距離，而且能夠維持高速奔跑最少 20 分鐘^[47]。狼嘅高耐力表示佢哋有能力使用堅持式打獵^{[e 7]}，而佢哋嘅跳躍力喺捉細獵物嗰時特別有用^[47]。

狼嘅各種感官對佢哋打獵好有用：狼嘅嗅覺冇打獵用嘅狗咁勁，只能夠探測由 2 至 3 公里（1.2 至 1.9 英哩）嘅距離隨風而嚟嘅腐肉嘅除，要捉好識匿埋嘅野免或者雀仔有啲難，但能夠輕易追蹤留低冇耐嘅氣味，所以要獵食大型動物完全冇問題；狼嘅聽覺亦都好敏銳，能夠聽到頻率係26千赫嘅聲^[48]－即係喺秋天可以聽到樹葉跌落地嘅聲。狼啲感官咁敏銳，就表示中至大型嘅動物好難避得開狼嘅追蹤^[12]。

打獵步驟

狼嘅打獵行動大致上可以分做五大階段：

搵出獵物位置：打緊獵嘅狼會用聞氣味同追蹤等嘅方法搵出獵物嘅位置。當狼面向住風吹過嚟嘅方向嗰陣，佢會聞到嗰個方向嘅除，而如果佢聞到有獵物嘅氣味，佢會企喺度，將眼、耳仔、同鼻等嘅感官對準嗰個方向；喺開放嘅地方，一個狼群可能會做少少打獵前嘅「儀式」－鼻對鼻企喺度，互相向彼此揈尾。當知道咗邊個方向有獵物之後，狼就會向獵物嘅方向進發^[49]。
跟蹤獵物^{[e 8]}：狼會盡力鬼祟噉接近獵物，會用匿埋喺草叢裏面等嘅方法避開獵物嘅視線^[50]；當佢哋同獵物有返咁上下接近嗰時，狼會加快腳步、揈佢哋嘅尾、同望清楚隻獵物，嘗試喺唔俾隻獵物發現嘅情況下，盡可能接近隻獵物^[51]。
直接接觸^{[e 9]}：當隻獵物留意到隻狼，佢可能會接近隻狼、企喺度堅守、又或者嘗試走佬。一般嚟講，駝鹿等強壯嘅大型獵物通常選擇堅守；如果獵物選擇堅守，噉隻狼要耷車（因為本能上，狼要見到有隻動物喺度跑先會攻擊）；跟住啲狼通常會一係忽視隻獵物，一係用某啲方法凶隻獵物，等佢想走佬^[52]。
追趕^{[e 10]}：如果隻獵物嘗試走佬，隻狼會即開始追捕佢；呢個係成場打獵最至關重要嘅階段，因為一隻狼可能跑得唔夠一隻全速奔跑嘅獵物咁快^[53]；如果佢哋嘅獵物有一群，噉啲狼會嘗試打散個獸群，又或者嘗試由個獸群嗰度孤立一兩隻獵物出嚟^[50]。
追捕^{[e 11]}：追趕嘅延續；喺呢個階段，狼會嘗試追上佢哋嘅獵物並且郁手殺死佢^[54]；如果追嘅係細獵物，狼會嘗試有咁快得咁快噉追上去，而如果追嘅係大獵物，追捕嘅階段會持續，目的係持續噉追，追到隻獵物因冇氣而倒下。狼正路喺追咗超過 1 至 2 公里（0.62 至 1.3 英里）都追唔到嗰陣會放棄，不過有紀錄試過有狼追隻鹿追咗成 21 公里（13 英哩）^[45]。有源自俄羅斯同北美等地嘅報告指，狼曉特登將獵物追趕入去結冰地面、斜坡、或者溝壑等嘅地方，減低獵物嘅速度同進一步消耗獵物嘅體力^[55]。

點殺獵物

狼可以有多種方法殺死隻獵物，而佢哋興唔同獵物用唔同方法殺：

如果係孔武有力嘅大型獵物，成熟嘅狼通常會避免由前面攻擊，而係改為會由隻獵物後面或者側面攻擊；例如係駝鹿噉，狼可以一啖咬落會陰等柔軟嘅部位嗰度，咬走一大忽肉，令隻獵物大量失血－一吓噉嘅咬可以造成 10 至 15 厘米（3.9 至 5.9 吋）咁長嘅傷口，而就算係一隻完全健康嘅鹿，俾狼噉樣咬三啖基本上都死梗^[50]。
如果係羊等嘅中型獵物，狼興用咬喉嚨－噉做會斬斷條頸嘅神經線同總頸動脈^{[e 12]}，令隻動物喺幾秒至一分鐘之內死亡^[50]。
如果係兔仔等嘅小型獵物，狼會向隻獵物嘅方向以高弧跳起，再喺落地嗰時一嘢用前爪撳住隻獵物^[56]。

狼有過捕^{[e 13]}嘅習性：當獵物易捉又數量多嘅時候（例如獵物係牲畜），狼殺起獵物上嚟會零舍狼死，殺嘅數量多過佢哋需要食嘅數量，跟住放棄或者儲起佢哋食唔嗮嘅肉；喺野外，呢種情況有陣時會喺晚冬或者春天嗰時出現，因為呢啲時間好多時會有大量積雪，搞到多獵物走唔甩^[57]；過捕又常見於搵地頭嘅時期，因為狼喺呢啲時間會零舍想確保自己有足夠嘅肉^[58]。過捕亦都比較常見於中型獵物嗰度，因為咬喉嚨係一種簡單又快捷嘅殺生方法－所以喺殺中型獵物嗰時，狼特別容易有得殺完一隻即刻走去殺下一隻^[56]。

開餐

殺死咗隻獵物之後，狼就要開餐。狼會好興奮噉由多個方向咬落去隻獵物條屍嗰度，嘗試將條屍撕開做一塊塊，並且食大嚿嘅肉。狼開起餐上嚟會有兩個次序－「邊個食先」同「食邊個部位先」^[59]：

一般嚟講，個狼群嘅父母會開餐先（佢哋通常係最落力殺獵物嘅），確保自己有足夠體力持續噉生仔女，而喺嘢食少嗰陣，通常啲年紀比較大、但又未成熟嘅仔女會分到嘅肉會比較少。狼群父母食飽之後就會唞，由得啲仔女任食任玩隻獵物嘅屍體，啲仔女會成群噉撲上去條屍嗰度，將屍體身上大嚿嘅肉撕落嚟，再擔埋一邊慢慢食^[60]。
狼喺「食邊個部位先」方面都相當講究：佢哋興最先食獵物體內嘅大型內臟，好似係心臟、肝臟、肺、同胃等（呢啲大型內臟最好營養）；然後，佢哋會食因為冇咗大型內臟而暴露出嚟嘅腎同脾，打後再食髀等部位嘅肌肉。一隻狼喺一餐當中可以食等同佢體重 15 至 19% 咁重嘅肉^[33]^[61]。

社交行為

狼群組成

狼具有社會性，基本嘅社會單位係一公一乸嘅狼掕住佢哋嘅未成年仔女^[12]。一個典型嘅狼群會有一家狼，包括 5 至 11 隻狼，當中兩隻成年（個狼群嘅阿爸阿媽），三至六隻有返咁上下大但未成年，再加埋一至三隻幼狼，而有陣時會有兩至三個噉嘅狼家庭組合埋一齊成一個狼群^[24]，而有記錄指有狼群可以大到有成 42 隻狼咁多^[62]，呢種唔同狼家族合作一齊行動嘅情況喺大型有蹄類動物（由於遷徙等原因）多咗嗰時最常見^[12]。喺最理想嘅情況下，一對狼兩公婆每年都會生到仔女，而啲仔女一般會跟住阿爸阿媽一齊行動，起碼跟 10 個月，而一隻狼喺性方面發育成熟或者個狼群唔夠嘢食（通常因為多咗細佬妹）嗰陣，就會離群自立^[63]。

一隻離開父母去自立嘅狼，無論公乸，都可以有好多方法求存：佢哋可以留喺父母個群附近，但有啲會一路行去離父母地頭成幾百公里遠嘅地方，而通常當佢哋（一）搵到唔係佢哋親戚嘅異性做伴侶，而且（二）兩隻開始一齊去搵冇敵對狼群嘅地方做地頭嗰時，一個新嘅狼群就會誕生－佢家族嘅血脈就會傳承落去^[47]。

狼群好少可會接納冇血緣關係嘅成員：如果有一隻狼嘗試走去加入一個同佢冇血緣關係嘅狼群，個狼群通常會郁手殺死佢；只有喺好偶然嘅情況下，狼群先會接納同佢哋冇血緣關係嘅成員，喺呢種情況下，九成係個狼群嘅父母喺度領養一隻未成年（一到三歲）嘅狼，而且佢哋覺得呢隻狼唔會對佢哋或者佢哋親生仔女造成威脅，亦都有啲情況係個狼群嘅父母其中一方死咗，所以淨低嗰隻父母搵個新伴侶嚟延續個狼群^[63]。

地盤性

狼係一種有強烈地盤性嘅動物：一個狼群會霸住一笪大過佢哋生存所需好多嘅地，確保自己嘅獵物供應，並且會主動噉攻擊入侵佢哋地盤嘅動物，包括狼群外嘅狼；一個狼群嘅地盤嘅核心地帶有大約 35 平方公里（14 平方英里）咁大，而佢哋有一半以上嘅時間都會喺地盤核心嗰度度過^[64]；地盤邊緣地帶通常會係獵物比較密集嘅地方，但狼傾向避開去呢啲地方打獵，目的似乎係想避免同第啲地盤嘅狼群爭獵物－兩個狼群打交對雙方嚟講都係可以致命嘅^[65]。地盤嘅大細主要由獵物多寡同個狼群啲幼狼嘅年紀話事－喺獵物密度低嘅地區，又或者多仔女進入 6 個月大（狼 6 個月大嗰陣零舍需要營養）嘅時候，狼群就要霸大啲地盤確保獵物供應^[66]；一個狼群每日會大約行經佢哋地盤 9% 嘅地方去搵獵物（平均每日行 25 公里，即係 16 英哩），好少可會離開地盤，只有喺真係好缺嘢食嗰時先會冒險走出地盤外搵嘢食^[64]。

一個狼群主要有兩種方法話俾第啲狼群知「呢帶係我地頭」－嚎叫^{[e 14]}同氣味標識^{[e 15]}^[37]。嚎叫指隻狼向天叫，等周圍一帶都聽到佢把聲同知佢存在，呢種行為喺狗身上都見得到；但一般認為，氣味標識比嚎叫更加有效，氣味標識指隻狼喺自己地頭嘅某啲地方屙低尿（研究指屙尿佔氣味標識嘅 60 至 80% ^[67]）又或者用肛門附近嘅腺留低分泌物，令到嗰啲地方有自己陣除，好多時仲會加埋喺自己地頭啲樹嗰度留低自己嘅爪痕，等路過嘅狼聞到陣除同見到爪痕就知呢笪地經已有狼群霸咗；單獨嘅狼好少可會做氣味標識，但一旦佢哋搵到伴侶開始想要有自己地盤嗰陣，就會開始起勢係噉做氣味標識；一個狼群喺佢哋地頭入面，會大約每隔 240 米（260 碼）做氣味標識，通常做喺岩石、樹、同大型動物嘅骨頭附近，而一個呢啲標記閒閒哋可以維持兩至三個禮拜^[66]。

狼嘅嚎叫聲

播呢個檔案有問題？睇吓媒體幫手。

地盤受侵犯對狼嚟講係可以致命嘅：一個狼群入侵第個狼群嘅地盤會造成兩個狼群關係緊張，會令受入侵嘅狼群提升自己做氣味標識嘅頻率；如果增加氣味標識趕唔走入侵者，兩個狼群通常就會打交，嘗試殺死對方。呢種情況似乎並唔罕見－有喺美國明尼蘇達州做嘅研究指，14 至 65% 嘅狼死亡個案都係因為狼與狼之間打交引致嘅^[68]。

溝通

狼曉用各種方式同同類溝通^[69]。狼有能力發出唔同嘅聲，用聲向同類傳達資訊：好似係正話提到嘅嚎叫噉，嚎叫可以用嚟喺打獵前後叫個狼群集合、宣示地盤主權、同埋喺走失咗嗰陣搵返同伴等等^[70]；另一方面，雖然大眾媒體好興描繪狼向住月光嚎叫，但呢個查實只係都市傳說－研究發現，狼嚎叫嘅行為根本唔受月光或者月相影響^[71]；除咗嚎叫，狼仲曉（好似狗噉）吠，尤其係喺覺得自己受威脅嗰陣就會噉做^[72]，不過通常冇狗吠得咁大聲或者咁持續^[72]。

除咗聲，狼仲會用表情同姿勢嚟溝通。一隻狼嘅表情姿勢好反映到佢有冇自信：一隻有自信嘅狼郁起上嚟會慢而有條理，身體擺喺高位；相比之下，一隻冇自信嘅狼行路身體會擺喺低位，而且耳仔同尾會耷低－呢點同狗又係好相似^[73]。

同第啲物種互動

同其他犬科競爭

狼通常會宰制住自己環境內嘅其他犬科物種。以郊狼為例：喺北美，灰狼殺死郊狼係好常見嘅事，尤其係喺冬天（因為喺呢個時間，郊狼會冒險走去偷狼殺嘅肉，狼見到會郁手攻擊）；狼亦都會主動襲擊郊狼嘅竇同殺死幼郊狼（不過好少可會食啲幼郊狼）；目前冇紀錄試過有郊狼成功殺死灰狼，淨係試過有郊狼當犬數上佔重大優勢嗰時，會夠膽追趕灰狼^[74]^[75]。而喺歐亞大陸，灰狼對待亞洲胡狼嘅方法同佢哋對待郊狼嘅方法近乎一樣，而一個地區多咗灰狼往往會搞到亞洲胡狼數目大減^[76]，而再細隻嘅犬科就更加唔係灰狼嘅對手－狸貓係狼嘅獵食對象，喺春天同夏天往往會有大量狸貓俾狼殺死^[12]；狼亦都會因為爭動物屍體而殺死各種嘅狐狸，好多時殺完狐狸之後仲會食埋條屍^[77]。

同熊競爭

相比之下，狼同熊之間嘅關係就比較複雜，狼有陣時能夠打低熊，但有時又會俾熊宰制住：好似係啡熊噉，成年嘅啡熊公閒閒地兩米長，而啡熊喺爭動物屍體嗰時多數會打贏狼，但狼一群上嗰陣可以輕易擊退侵犯佢哋個竇嘅啡熊。同時狼同啡熊都會殺對方啲仔女，爭在啡熊似乎唔多鍾意食狼－報告指，狼多數會食佢哋殺嘅啡熊，但啡熊通常淨係會食幼狼^[78]；細隻啲嘅美洲黑熊就冇啡熊咁能夠抵抗狼－根據喺北美做嘅研究，狼時不時會主動走去搵美洲黑熊嘅竇，殺死啲黑熊而且殺咗之後唔食，而美洲黑熊喺爭嘢食嗰時多數會輸俾狼^[79]。

同貓科競爭

狼能夠輕易噉宰制細隻過老虎嘅貓科動物。研究顯示，歐亞山貓都唔係狼嘅對手^[80]^[81]。以美洲獅為例，狼平時比較少會撞到同地區嘅美洲獅，因為兩者興喺唔同海拔嘅地方搵食。但一到冬天，積雪會搞到獵物走嗮入山谷，令到狼同美洲獅比較有機會碰頭；狼因為佢哋通常一大群上，而美洲獅偏向獨行，所以兩者撞親面，死嘅通常都會係美洲獅，狼跟住仲會搶埋美洲獅殺嘅獵物；此外仲有報告指，狼有陣時會殺死美洲獅乸同埋獅乸身邊嘅幼獅^[82]^[83]。

老虎係少數有能力對狼造成威脅嘅動物^[84]^[85]^[86]。有喺俄羅斯內興安嶺^{[e 16]}做嘅研究詳細噉紀錄咗狼虎互動：研究員睇到老虎嘅存在令狼嘅數量急跌，甚至乎搞到當地嘅狼絕種，而似乎係得有人類獵老虎、抑制老虎數量嗰時，狼先可以喺有老虎嘅地方生存。老虎對狼嘅打擊似乎主要在於老虎爭嘢食爭贏，多過係因為老虎走去食狼。研究顯示，老虎好少主動去攻擊狼，而且好多時殺咗狼之後唔會食^[87]。

同鬣狗競爭

狼同鬣狗^{[e 17]}^{[註 1]}似乎係大致上打成平手：喺以色列、中亞、同印度等地，狼有陣時會同鬣狗爭嘢食，而喺有狼嘅地區，鬣狗食嘅肉當中有唔少都係由狼郁手殺嘅。單打獨鬥嘅話，狼通常唔夠鬣狗打，甚至可以俾鬣狗食落肚^[88]；但狼群能夠輕易噉喺犬數上贏鬣狗，並且趕走鬣狗^[89]^[90]。

合作

有研究報告試過見到狼同第啲物種合作：

喺 1994 年，以色列南部有研究員發現三隻狼同一隻條紋鬣狗^{[e 18]}嘅腳印，而且望落似係四隻一齊行緊；而喺 1998 年同一個地區，研究員見到一個狼群，4 隻成年 3 隻未成年，同一隻條紋鬣狗一齊行，而且隻條紋鬣狗仲要係喺個狼群之間行（唔係跟喺個狼群後面）。有動物學家推測，狼同條紋鬣狗有可能合作：狼比較擅長獵食大隻又跑得快嘅動物，而條紋鬣狗就嗅覺勁過狼，仲曉打開人類揼嘅罐頭等嘢食容器，所以兩個物種的確有合作嘅可能性^[91]。
有一份喺 1921 年發佈嘅報告聲稱，試過搵到有一隻獨行嘅狼一路行，一路有兩隻郊狼似乎喺佢兩邊比較遠嘅地方活動；嗰兩隻郊狼喺發現有危險嗰時會警告隻狼，而且仲有目擊者話呢兩隻郊狼會走去食嗰隻狼殺嘅屍體，雖然嗰隻狼唔會俾兩隻郊狼埋佢身^[92]。

繁殖

狼群根基

一個狼群嘅根基通常係兩公婆嘅一對狼：狼行一夫一妻制^{[e 19]}，一公一乸嘅狼做咗伴侶之後，多數會喺埋一齊直到其中一隻死咗為止，而如果兩公婆是但一隻死咗，生還嗰隻會搵新伴侶，延續個狼群^[93]；有時狼群可以多過一對夫妻，呢種情況通常係嘢食等資源充裕嗰時先會有，而且兩對夫妻要係有啲血緣、但冇近親繁殖嘅（例如可能兩兄弟，各自搵咗隻唔係佢哋親戚嘅狼乸做伴侶），而幾對噉樣嘅夫妻可以局部共享地盤^[94]。多數情況下，一個狼群會殺死外來嘅成年狼，除非佢哋夫妻其中一個死咗，淨低嗰個要搵新伴侶；而對於外來嘅非成年狼，狼群有可能會領養佢哋－受領養嘅狼多數係一至三歲大嘅公，而一隻噉嘅狼公大個咗可能會揀佢啲繼姐妹做伴侶，再同佢老婆去第度開新狼群^[94]。狼喺絕大多數情況下都會避免近親繁殖^[95]。

雖然話狼群嘅根基通常係兩夫妻，但都有報告試過發現第啲形式嘅狼群。已知嘅非一夫一妻式狼群有以下呢啲^[96]：

一隻成年公掕兩隻成年乸；
一隻成年公掕一隻成年乸，再加一隻由隻公同打前伴侶生、細過兩歲嘅仔；
一隻成年乸同一隻成年公，再掕住隻公嘅細佬；
有一個喺黃石國家公園觀察到嘅狼群包含 12 隻源自唔同狼群嘅成年狼，以及佢哋細過四歲大嘅仔女，成個狼群有成 42 隻狼咁多；
狼裏面有同性性行為，所以有陣時會有（例如）兩隻狼公走埋一齊，組成生唔到仔嘅狼群^[97]。

交配

狼去到兩歲就算成熟，而到咗三歲左右算喺性上成熟。一隻狼幾時第一次生仔視乎環境因素而定：當嘢食多或者狼嘅數目唔多嗰時，狼會趁後生生仔嚟有效噉運用充裕嘅資源；成熟嘅狼乸每年都可以生仔，一年通常會生一竇仔，而且狼乸唔似得郊狼乸噉有更年期，所以去到幾老都有得嘗試生仔^[93]^[98]。狼乸通常喺冬天後半橛嗰時開始進入兩個禮拜嘅發情期^{[e 20]}，準備繁殖。喺呢個時候，年紀大嘅仔女會行開先，然後兩歲大嗰啲會行開，最後啲幼狼都會暫時離開，俾兩夫妻交配。個狼群打後會聚返埋一齊，但仲會避開兩夫妻一陣^[93]。

狼竇

狼會起竇養育保護幼狼：通常到咗夏天，狼就會郁手為幼狼起新竇；起竇嗰陣，狼乸會搵一啲天然有瓦遮頭嘅地方，例如大岩石嘅裂縫、河畔上嘅峭壁、或者有植物𢫏住嘅窿，甚至索性重用狐狸等細隻動物用過嚟做竇嘅地方；跟住啲狼要按情況調整吓個地方，例如係狼可能搵咗個之前有狐狸住過嘅地洞，而為咗方便佢哋自己郁動，會掘大啲個地洞；個竇離水源唔會超過 500 米（500 碼）遠，通常會向南等個竇多啲陽光照射（暖啲同啲雪易啲溶），同埋遠離人類活動（不過有個案搵到有狼喺馬路同火車路軌附近起竇）。竇周圍會有些少空曠地方，等啲幼狼可以喺度唞同玩。喺野外，啱用嚟做竇嘅地方唔多，所以狼竇通常會由一個家庭嘅狼共享^[99]。大肚嘅狼乸會留喺地盤中心嗰頭嘅竇，避免地盤邊界位比較常會發生、唔同狼群相遇同打交嘅情況^[100]。

佗仔湊仔

狼兩公婆交配咗之後就要諗佗仔湊仔：隻狼乸會佗仔佗 62 至 75 日，到咗春天或者初夏嗰時會生仔；生幾多隻視隻狼乸嘅年紀而定，後生狼乸一胎通常生 4 至 5 隻，年紀大啲嘅狼乸一胎會生 6 至 8 隻，而有紀錄年紀大啲嘅狼乸可以一嘢生 14 隻咁多；啲仔女有 60 至 80% 都會養唔大^[101]。啱啱出世嘅狼仔係又盲又聾嘅，啲毛呈灰啡色而且又短又軟，多數重大約 300 至 500 克（11 - 18 安士），到咗 9 至 12 日大嗰時先會開眼。直至啲幼狼曉自己離竇為止，佢哋阿媽會一路留喺個竇嗰度，照顧佢哋同餵奶俾佢哋食，而佢哋阿爸就會獨力孭起打獵嘅職責。到咗三個禮拜大嗰時，幼狼會嘗試離開個竇，開始食固體嘢食，同兄弟姐妹之間玩打交；幼狼喺生命頭四個禮拜生得最快－體重喺呢段期間可以增長成 30 倍^[102]；到咗 1.5 個月大，啲幼狼就會有足夠嘅敏捷度，曉有危險嗰陣靠自己走佬，而且仲會開始真正噉打交，甚至兄弟姐妹間按「邊個打交叻啲」分級^[103]。到咗秋天，幼狼通常就有能力陪父母同阿哥家姐去打獵^[100]。

生物分類

Canis lupus 呢個學名係由瑞典植物學家同動物學家林奈^{[e 21]}喺 1758 年佢出版《自然系統》^{[e 22]}嗰時改嘅^[2]。當時林奈主要係研究歐亞狼^{[e 23]}，及後嘅動物學家有幫手進一步研究狼嘅次品種，最後喺 2005 年整合咗有關 38 個次品種嘅知識，並將狗列埋做狼嘅次品種^[104]。

群體結構

狼適應能力高，可以喺多種環境當中生存，所以喺全北界^{[e 24]}廣泛地區都有狼分佈。現代嘅狼研究表示，狼有多個次品種，而呢啲次品種之間嘅差異係源於環境上嘅差異嘅^[105]^[106]－唔同地區嘅環境都唔同^[107]，例如係溫度會影響啲狼嘅毛皮要有幾厚、有嘅植物會決定啲狼要點匿埋、同有乜獵物會影響啲狼要有乜牙嚟有效噉咬肉等等^[108]^[109]^[110]。

歐洲結構

根據喺 2000 年代做嘅研究，歐洲嘅狼以南北分，主要有五個聚類（^{[e 25]}一個聚類係遺傳上零舍彼此之間相似、又同第啲族群唔相似嘅族群^{[註 2]}），當中三個聚類喺意大利、喀爾巴阡山脈、以及巴爾幹半島一帶，另外兩個佔據中北歐同烏克蘭乾草原：

意大利嘅狼係一個受孤立嘅族群，遺傳多樣性低；
巴爾幹聚類由克羅地亞、保加利亞、同希臘等東南歐嘅狼組成；
中歐同北歐嘅聚類就包括嚟自芬蘭、拉脫維亞、白俄羅斯、波蘭、同俄羅斯等地嘅狼；
而喀爾巴阡山脈狼就係中北歐聚類同巴爾幹聚類嘅混合。

根據現代生物學研究，呢啲聚類結構可能反映咗狼古時由一啲凍嘅庇護地重新擴張、各自適應新環境、以及喺某啲地方俾人類獵殺而造成嘅^[111]。

北美結構

北美嘅狼成六個生態型（^{[e 26]}遺傳同生態環境上彼此分離嘅族群）。呢六個生態型分別係西森林^{[e 27]}、北森林^{[e 28]}、極北^{[e 29]}、高極北^{[e 30]}、巴芬^{[e 31]}同卑詩^{[e 32]}。喺 2016 年做嘅研究發現，降水同每日平均溫度間距係最能夠影響狼生態型形成嘅因素^[106]^[112]，而狼生態型嘅遺傳特性反映狼偏好留喺佢出世嘅地形嗰度^[106]。

進化史

狼喺好耐之前經已存在喺地球上。目前最早嘅狼化石發現於曾經係加拿大白令陸橋東部嘅阿拉斯加費爾班克斯^{[e 33]}嗰度。呢嚿化石最高估計有成 1,000,000 年咁古老。10 幾萬年前嘅狼經已有相當嘅多樣性，啲牙硬淨過現代嘅灰狼（尤其係前大牙），塊面前方嘅吻突^{[e 34]}比較短，而某啲肌肉比較發達。研究相信，當時嘅狼有噉嘅形態係因為當時嘅動物好大隻，搞到狼需要適應以食屍體同骨為主。當時嘅狼似乎比較多有牙爆裂嘅情況（呢點同經已絕咗種嘅恐狼相似），噉可能係因為佢哋食屍體多或者因為要同第啲食肉動物競爭而焗住要食嘢食得快，而且嗰陣時嘅狼似乎亦都好興咬動物嘅骨^[113]。

基因組嘅研究結果有啲唔同：呢啲研究顯示，現代嘅狼同狗同源，有個共同祖先，而呢個共同祖先可能只係 20,000 年前（進化上嚟講好近）嘅事。遠古嘅狼似乎面臨過一個種群樽頸（^{[e 35]}指一個種群因為一啲災難性嘅事件而數目急速下降）^[114]，跟手再好快噉由淨低嗰個族群嗰度重新發展過^[115]^[116]。噉亦都意味住，當時原本嘅狼唔夠一種新嘅狼鬥，而俾新狼取代^[117]。

混種

包括狼在內嘅多個犬科物種有共同染色體數（78）^[118]^[119]^[120]，所以喺遺傳上相當接近，能夠生雜種^[121]：喺好耐之前，包括亞洲胡狼同灰狼在內嘅幾個犬科物種之間有基因流動（^{[e 36]}唔同族群之間基因交流，即係話兩個族群有生雜種），而證據顯示，非洲嘅犬科物種有同中東嘅狼同狗生雜種；現代嘅狼同郊狼明顯有喺遺傳上嘅混雜^[122]，而事實係，郊狼同狼似乎有個冇幾耐之前絕咗種嘅共同祖先^[123]^[124]。

喺世界多個地方，狼都會主動同第啲犬科雜交：近期喺意大利做嘅研究顯示，有啲意大利狼公有狗嘅血統，表示狼乸會喺野外同狗公交配^[125]；喺高加索山脈，有 10% 嘅狗－包括負責保護牲畜嘅狗－係同狼雜交配種而成嘅^[126]；而雖然好少可有人能夠觀察到亞洲胡狼同狼交配（直至 2019 年為止都未有個案），但對高加索山脈以及保加利亞嘅胡狼做嘅遺傳研究顯示，亞洲胡狼同灰狼喺史上曾經雜交過^[126]^[127]。

保育

狼嘅保育係由廿世紀中開始嘅。喺廿世紀中之前，人類喺科技上嘅進步令到佢哋橫掃成個地球，狼唔夠人類打，喺唔少地方都絕咗種。及後，生態保育專家等人員嘅努力令到狼嘅犬口下降喺 1970 年代停止，而喺法律保護、土地運用嘅改變、同人口由鄉下移去城市等嘅因素影響之下，狼仲成功噉重新進入一啲佢哋之前絕跡嘅地區，雖然喺唔少地區，人同狼爭獵物、人為咗自身安全獵狼、同生境嘅分裂等因素依然令狼受到威脅。不過總體上，狼到咗家陣經已好穩陣，所以佢哋喺國際自然保護聯盟瀕危物種紅色名錄^{[e 37]}當中俾人列為最唔使理（^{[e 38]}完全唔受威脅）等級^[1]。

北美

最北方

狼喺北美嘅極北之地好強。喺加拿大，狼喺佢 80% 嘅原生地當中都仲有活動，所以加拿大可以話係狼呢個物種嘅要塞，有大約 50,000 至 60,000 隻狼（俾生態學家評定為一個相當理想嘅數字）。喺加拿大，第一民族（^{[e 39]}指加拿大嘅土著）嘅人可以自由噉獵狼，但第啲人就要攞牌先可以噉做，而每年加拿大可以有成 4,000 隻狼俾人類獵殺。而喺阿拉斯加，狼嘅犬口大約有 6,000 至 7,000 隻，而人類亦都可以喺有限制之下獵狼，而喺嗰頭，估計每年有大約相當於總犬口 15% 嘅狼俾人獵殺^[128]。

美國本土

喺美國本土^{[e 40]}，狼一路去到 1973 年都俾人列為瀕危物種而受到保護。喺嗰時，美國本土嘅狼形勢惡劣到淨係喺明尼蘇達州嗰度有幾百隻同喺密歇根州嘅盧華爾島^{[e 41]}嗰度有。喺法律保護下，明尼蘇達州嘅狼去到 2000 年代中經已恢復到有 3,000 隻，而且仲成功返咗去威斯康辛州同密芝根上半島^{[e 42]}呢兩個佢哋之前生存過嘅地方^[129]。到咗 1970 年代尾，加拿大西南部嘅狼越過加拿大同美國嗰條邊界，到咗美國西北嘅蒙大拿州，以及於 1986 年喺蒙大拿州嘅冰川國家公園^{[e 43]}起咗個竇。1995 年，美國聯邦政府開始將狼重新引入去黃石國家公園（狼喺 1930 年代由黃石國家公園絕跡）以及愛達荷州中部^[128]。由嗰時開始，狼嘅足跡遍佈洛磯山脈^{[e 44]}北部地區，當中蒙大拿州、愛達荷州、同懷俄明州喺 2010 年代中同後加埋至少有 1,700 隻狼，而同期喺華盛頓州同俄勒岡州，甚至乎加州等地，都有一定數目嘅狼群^[130]^[131]^[132]。

墨西哥

自從 1970 年代尾開始，美國同墨西哥就有協力幫手做狼嘅保育。佢哋首先做嘅嘢係捉嗮墨西哥野外嘅狼先，以防佢哋滅絕，而喺 1977 年至 1980 年，墨西哥當局捉咗 5 隻野狼（4 隻公 1 隻大咗肚嘅乸），並且用佢哋開始搞個配種計劃。由呢個計劃生出嚟嘅狼由 1998 年開始，就有俾官方放生去美國西南嘅亞利桑拿州同新墨西哥州野外，等狼呢個物種喺嗰啲地區重新發展。直至 2017 年，墨西哥嘅狼配種計劃產生咗 143 隻喺野外生存嘅狼同 240 隻俾人養住搞配種嘅狼^[133]^[134]。

歐亞

歐洲

歐洲－唔包括俄羅斯、白俄羅斯、同烏克蘭呢三個地區－嘅狼非常健康：歐洲有大約 12,000 隻狼，分佈喺 28 個國家^[135]；根據多個歐洲國家嘅條約，狼都係一個受法律保護嘅野生物種，而多個歐洲國家都有法例限制人對狼嘅危害，不過某啲歐洲國家並冇嚴格噉執行呢啲法例^[1]；而自從 1980 年左右起，歐洲嘅狼就由打前嘅瀕危狀態反彈，重新進入佢哋之前絕咗跡嘅地區，而且歐洲喺經濟上轉型，少咗人做畜牧業，令到少咗歐洲人因為想保護牲畜而殺狼^[128]。

狼喺多個歐洲地區數目都唔錯：據估計喺 2016 年，巴爾幹半島^{[e 45]}嗰頭有大約成 4,000 隻狼，喀爾巴阡山脈^{[e 46]}嗰頭有大約 3,400 至 3,800 隻，波羅的海三國^{[e 47]}有 1,700 至 2,200 隻，意大利半島^{[e 48]}有 1,100 至 2,400 隻；而伊比利半島^{[e 49]}西北就喺 2007 年估計有 2,500 隻^[136]。

前蘇聯

喺前蘇聯地區，狼嘅形勢都唔差：狼喺蘇聯統治期間，曾經俾人大規模有組織噉獵殺，但佢哋依然喺好多前蘇聯地區存活。據 2010 年代中嘅估計，格魯吉亞有 1,500 隻狼，哈薩克有 20,000 隻，而俄羅斯就有 45,000 隻，而且呢啲地區嘅狼犬口似乎好穩定^[137]。俄羅斯政府有陣會俾錢人獵狼，俄羅斯嘅狼估計每年至少有 20 至 30% 嘅俾人獵殺，但似乎俄羅斯噉做並唔明顯影響狼嘅數目^[138]。

中東

中東嘅狼生存得唔錯，多得土耳其、以色列、同沙特阿拉伯呢三個國家通力合作^[139]。喺 2010 年代初，土耳其境內估計有成 7,000 隻狼^[140]，而狼喺當時嘅土耳其係法定嘅打獵對象，得有牌打獵嘅人先可以喺打獵季節合法獵殺佢哋^[141]；以色列自從 1954 年開始就有法律保護狼，而且能夠有效噉執行保育政策，令到以色列嘅狼有保障，而且仲有擴散去周圍國家。沙特阿拉伯多沙漠地區，而成個阿拉伯半島同期估計大約有 300 至 600 隻狼^[139]。另一方面，伊朗嘅狼似乎好活躍^[142]。

再東啲

喺南亞、東亞、同東南亞，狼都生存得唔錯：

位於南亞北部嘅阿富汗同巴基斯坦係狼嘅重要要塞。印度喺 1972 年給予狼法律上嘅保護，而據 2000 年代估計，喺印度北方嘅查謨-克什米爾邦^{[e 50]}大約 60,000 平方公里（23,000 平方哩）嘅範圍之內，大約有 300 隻狼^[139]。
據 2000 年代嘅估計，蒙古大約有 10,000 至 20,000 隻狼^[143]。
據 2000 年代嘅估計，黑龍江嗰頭有大約 650 隻狼，而再近期啲嘅研究顯示，中國大陸各地都有狼分佈^[143]。

文化影響

神話傳說

狼喺世界多個地方嘅神話同民間傳說當中都有出現，而且好多時都身處於令古人又敬又畏嘅地位：喺希臘神話裏面，狼俾人認為係太陽神（兼光明同秩序之神）阿波羅^{[e 51]}嘅一個象徵^[144]；而古羅馬人就將狼同佢哋嘅打仗同農業之神瑪斯^{[e 52]}扯上關係^[145]，仲有傳說話古羅馬嘅建國者羅穆路斯與雷穆斯^{[e 53]}係由一隻狼乸湊大嘅^[146]；喺北歐神話裏面就有相傳最終會吞噬眾神之父奧丁^{[e 54]}嘅恐怖巨狼芬里厄^{[e 55]}^[147]，而奧丁佢自己又有養另外兩隻狼做寵物^[148]；喺遠東嘅神道教傳說入面，狼俾日本人稱為大神^{[e 56]}同奉為神靈嘅使者，而且神道教仲有傳說話狼會保護農作物免受野豬同鹿（會食農作物嘅動物）侵襲，令日本人傳統對狼有種尊敬嘅態度^[149]。

人化成狼

此外，有多個地方嘅民間都有傳說話人可以變成狼。古希臘神話有個故仔話有個國王因為做咗衰嘢（將佢其中一個仔殺咗，仲煮咗嚟諗住俾宙斯食）而俾宙斯罰佢要變做狼^[150]；而及後中世紀歐洲多地都有狼人^{[e 57]}嘅傳說，話有啲人會變身成狼去殺人^[151]；而某啲美洲土著部落自古就有傳說話使用巫術嘅人曉靠著起狼皮變身成狼，跟手仲會殺人同搞墳墓^[152]。

凶星天狼

天狼星^{[e 58]}以狼命名，喺唐人嘅傳統星象學說當中，俾人視為一粒「主侵略之兆」嘅凶星^[153]：天狼星係地球夜晚天上面最光嘅恆星，所以早喺戰國時代經已有古漢人觀察得到，例如屈原就喺《九歌·東君》當中講到「舉長矢兮射天狼」，以天狼星比喻位於楚國西北嘅秦國^[154]，而打後嘅北宋大文豪蘇東坡又有喺《江城子．密州出獵》提到「會挽雕弓似滿月，西北望，射天狼」，以天狼星嚟去比喻威脅北宋西北邊境嘅西夏^[155]。

文學描述

遠古文學

遠古時期好多歐洲以至近東嘅文學作品都有狼嘅形象出現，而且多數都唔將狼視為好嘢。伊索^{[e 59]}有喺佢嘅幾個寓言當中將狼描繪成破壞同危險嘅象徵，觸及當時以牧羊為生計－所以唔多鍾意狼－嘅古希臘人嘅神經，例如佢個出名作品《狼嚟喇》就用咗狼嚟做大奸角，亦都令到嗌狼^{[e 60]}到咗廿一世紀喺西人之間成為「講大話」嘅同義詞，而且伊索嘅另外幾個作品都有以「牧羊人同狗一齊合作對抗狼」做主題^[156]。聖經提咗狼 13 次，多數都係攞狼嚟做貪婪同破壞嘅代表，例如喺新約當中，耶穌本人將佢嘅追隨者比喻成羊，迫害佢追隨者嘅人比喻成狼^[157]。

後期文學

喺中世紀以至摩登時代嘅歐洲文學當中，狼依然以扮演人類嘅敵人為主。出名嘅童話故事《小紅帽》將狼描繪成能夠模仿人類講嘢，仲講到狼好似強姦犯噉會跟蹤同傷害細路女，又講到狼引誘小紅帽食人肉，而有學者指出，小紅帽係狼嘅形象喺近代西方文化當中惡劣嘅主因之一^[158]；類似嘅狼角色亦都有喺《三隻豬仔》同《狼同七隻小山羊》等嘅故仔當中出現^[159]；東歐嘅俄羅斯文學裏面好興描述狼攻擊人類同牲畜，而喺呢啲故仔入面，人類往往跟住就會同狗一齊去獵殺狼^[160]。

喺廿世紀嘅歐美文學當中，狼嘅形象開始有所改善。喺 1894 年出版、到咗廿一世紀都仲相當受歡迎嘅英國故事集《叢林奇譚》^{[e 61]}當中，狼唔係被描繪成鍾意食肉嘅奸角，而係以家族形式生存、座右銘為「狼嘅力量在於狼群，狼群嘅力量在於狼」嘅高貴動物（呢點同同期嘅文學作品差天共地）；生物學家仲有讚賞叢林奇譚，指出呢本書對狼嘅描繪比較準確，例如動物學研究有發現狼打獵嘅成功的確取決於狼－尤其係成年狼公－嘅數量^[161]，即係話「狼嘅力量在於狼群，狼群嘅力量在於狼」係準確嘅^[162]。同時由 1980 年代起，日本動漫興起，日本人將佢哋傳統對狼嘅正面描繪傳去歐美，幫手改變咗狼喺歐美文化產物當中嘅形象^{[註 3]}。

粵語俗語

粵語嘅俗語當中有好多個用咗狼字嘅詞，一般都係用狼嘅形象比喻凶狠同惡毒。

例如狼同狼死等嘅字詞可以攞嚟做形容詞，描述一個人凶狠無情：

例句：「阿偉佢打起交上嚟，可以好狼死㗎！」

有人指，狼呢隻漢字係狠多咗一點，所以係「仲狠過狠」，即係「非常凶狠」噉嘅意思；粵語入面又有狼胎一詞，指一個人狼嘅表現係「出自娘胎」，而且由中醫嘅角度睇，動物嘅胎盤係佢嘅精華所在，所以狼嘅胎盤就係狼嘅精華，而狼胎嘅人就係天生就咁狼死，而且狼死到最高點^[163]。

人狼衝突

人同狼之間會有衝突。人類會因為多種原因想獵殺狼，而研究顯示，人類活動會令周圍嘅狼皮質醇（^{[e 62]}一種反映心理壓力嘅荷爾蒙）水平提升^[164]。

獵食牲畜

狼成日都會獵食人養嘅牲畜，而呢點喺狼嘅保育上係一個大問題：牲畜對狼嚟講係容易嘅獵食對象，因為牲畜往往喺人類保護嘅環境下進化，搞到唔多識保護自己^[165]；所以喺野外唔夠嘢食嗰陣，狼往往會走去獵食牲畜，呢種情況喺多大型野生動物俾狼獵食嘅北美少見啲，但喺歐亞成日會發生^[166]；狼最常會趁夏天－牲畜喺度食草－嗰時，走去獵食綿羊（歐洲）、馴鹿（斯堪的納維亞北部）、草羊（印度）、馬（蒙古）、仲有係牛同火雞（北美）^[167]；狼獵牛或者馬多數會殺一兩隻，但獵起火雞、羊、馴鹿嗰時好可能會殺一柞^[168]；狼有時更加會攻入農場嗰度獵食牲畜^[167]。狼甚至未必使獵食牲畜－狼嘅存在會令牲畜感到心理壓力，而呢股心理壓力時不時會搞到牲畜流產、體重跌、或者肉質變差^[167]。狼對牲畜嘅傷害搞到從事畜牧業嘅人有誘因殺佢哋，而且目前除咗殺嗮啲狼之外，冇完美嘅方法防止狼獵食牲畜^[167]；因為噉，有多個國家喺做狼嘅保育嗰陣，都焗住要貼錢俾國內嘅畜牧業，喺狼為畜牧業造成經濟損失嗰時俾錢做補償或者提供政府保險^[169]。

狼對狗

因為狼同狗都係強勢嘅食肉動物，所以兩者成日都會打交^[170]。單打獨鬥嘅話，狗通常都會俾狼殺死，而且爭嘢食唔會夠狼爭；但狼群通常狼數唔多（頂櫳得嗰十零隻，當中得兩三隻成年），而且如果佢哋喺人類多嘅地區同狗碰頭，狗會喺數量上佔重大優勢之餘仲有人類撐佢哋，所以喺呢種情況下，狼多數唔夠狗打^[171]^[172]。

狼有時會殺狗，而某啲個別地區嘅狼族群仲興以狗肉做重要糧食來源。例如喺克羅地亞，狼殺狗殺得多過殺綿羊，俄羅斯嘅狼據講會壓制流浪狗嘅數量，而喺廿一世紀初嘅斯堪的納維亞同美國威斯康辛州，狼攻擊狗俾人視為一個生態問題^[173]；狼可能會喺人類屋企附近或者森林當中攻擊狗^[173]，會殺死多種嘅獵狗，當中年紀大嘅狗最受影響，因為呢啲狗唔似得後生啲嘅狗咁細膽，往往唔曉驚同避開狼，不過有啲大型嘅狗種可以同狼打交打到不相上下^[173]。值得一提嘅係，狼攻擊起有人陪伴嘅狗上嚟，好多時會狼死得好交關，仲會忽視隻狗身邊嘅人^[167]。

根據紀錄，全世界每年俾狼殺嘅狗數量查實好少，但「狼殺狗」嘅現象就引起唔少人為佢哋啲狗擔憂：喺唔少文化當中，人都視狗為好朋友，當佢哋係屋企人同工作夥伴，而呢種對「狼會殺狗」嘅恐懼有時會令公眾支持獵人殺狼^[171]。

牧羊狗

有唔少生態學家指出，牧羊狗可以幫手減少人同狼嘅衝突，而噉做可以間接幫手保育狼^[174]：牧羊狗唔係特別有攻擊性，但因為狗同狼相近，所以佢哋能夠一定程度上同狼溝通；牧羊狗能夠向狼做出一啲曖昧行為，例如係好幾隻牧羊狗一齊向住啲狼做出吠、邀請佢哋玩、或者有攻擊性嘅舉止等等嘅舉動，呢啲舉動可以干擾狼，令到佢哋無所適從^{[註 4]}^[171]^[175]。事實係，歐亞喺歷史上不嬲有用開牧羊狗嚟抵抗狼對牲畜嘅獵食，而且頗有成效^[176]。

狼對人

雖然狼並唔算係人類嘅天敵，但多個社會傳統上都會畏懼狼^[177]。一隻狼對人類會有乜反應視乎隻狼嘅經驗而定：未試過見到人獵狼甚至俾人餵過嘅狼唔會驚人^[178]，而狼喺受到挑釁嗰時可能會攻擊人，不過呢啲攻擊多數都只係限於咬手腳，而且咬起上嚟通常唔會好用力^[177]。

狼獵食人嘅案例唔多，不過的確有可能發生，當中以女人同細路最受威脅：如果一隻狼因為長期唔受人侵害而變到唔驚人，有可能會走去嘗試獵食人。俾狼獵食嘅人通常會俾隻狼係噉咬佢個頭同塊面，跟住隻狼就會拖佢走同食佢，制止方法通常係殺死攻擊人嗰隻狼。狼獵食人嘅個案通常都係喺六月至八月發生，因為呢啲月份最多人會為咗帶牲畜食草或者採啤梨類生果等嘅目的而走入森林嗰度^[177]。另一方面，有初生仔女要養嘅狼喺六月至八月零舍有壓力要搵嘢食，所以可能會焗住要攻擊人^[177]。

癲狗病

狼另一個對人類造成嘅可能危害係癲狗病^{[e 63]}：狼唔多會帶癲狗病，但可以由狗、狐狸、同胡狼等動物身上惹到癲狗病；因為狼屬於強壯又大隻嘅動物，所以佢哋惹起癲狗病上嚟相當危險；據估計，俾有癲狗病嘅狼咬危險過俾有癲狗病嘅狗咬 15 倍^[177]；一隻惹咗癲狗病嘅狼通常會單獨行動，行到離開佢哋地盤好遠嘅地方，近乎隨機噉咬傷多個人（以成年男人為主）同牲畜。有癲狗病嘅狼對人造成危害嘅情況喺地中海東部、中東、同中亞等地常見，喺歐洲本土就比較少見：根據紀錄，喺 2002 年同打前嗰 50 年間，歐洲同俄羅斯總共得 8 宗因為癲狗病嘅狼而死人嘅個案，不過喺南亞就有成 200 宗^[177]。

人類獵狼

世界多個國家地區都有獵狼^{[e 64]}嘅傳統。獵狼好多時係為咗保護牲畜，但有陣時人又會為咗想要狼嘅毛皮等嘅原因走去獵狼。獵狼唔容易：第廿六任美國總統西奧多羅斯福（^{[e 65]}佢有出於嗜好玩開打獵）就指出，狼係一種古惑、感覺靈敏、耐力勁、而且能夠制服同殺死獵狗嘅動物，所以好難獵殺^[179]。因為噉，獵狼人要用好多計仔嚟引狼同殺狼，好似係殺竇入面嘅幼狼、用狗追蹤佢哋、用番木鱉鹼^{[e 66]}毒佢哋、模仿狼叫、同設陷阱等等^[180]，例如俄羅斯人就有噉嘅方法獵狼－獵人會用有人類氣味嘅繩索包圍住一群狼，如果狼驚人除嘅話就會驚到唔識走（不過呢種做法對習慣人陣除嘅狼冇效）；而蒙古同中亞多地嘅人有用鷹同隼獵狼嘅傳統（之但係呢種傳統喺廿一世紀開始息微）。現代人可以坐直昇機由高空用槍械射殺狼，呢種做法好有效，不過有爭議性^[181]。

人狼合作

狼同人有可能合作。有啲人會為咗貪得意等嘅原因養狼做寵物，或者養佢哋幫手做嘢，不過養狼唔係人人都做得嘅：狼同狗喺遺傳上好接近，但唔似得狗噉具有服從性同本能上對人友好，所以訓練一隻狼聽話相當難；此外，狼需要好大嘅活動空間－一隻典型嘅狼要有 26 至 39 平方公里（10 - 15 平方英哩）嘅面積做運動，先會健康；再加上狼野性發作起上嚟可以好危險。因為呢啲緣故，養狼呢家嘢幾乎淨係得受過專業動物處理訓練嘅人先會做得嚟，而一般人只能夠養狗^[182]。

相集

雪地上嘅一隻狼（地點：德國）
一隻就快開餐嘅狼
一隻啱啱食完嘢嘅狼
一隻狼
一隻嚎叫緊嘅狼
幾隻出咗世冇幾耐嘅幼狼（地點：韓國）
一隻奔跑緊嘅狼（地點：墨西哥）
兩隻狼喺度食緊隻鹿。
奧地利嘅一隻狼
一隻喺度曬太陽嘅狼
近影一隻狼嘅頭
大連一個動物園入面嘅一隻狼
狼嘅骨架

註釋

↑ 鬣狗雖然個名叫狗，但其實並唔係一種犬科動物。
↑ 想知點樣用數學化嘅方法想像呢樣嘢，可以睇吓聚類分析。
↑ 可以睇吓電視橋段網嘅 Noble Wolf。
↑ 不過噉做有陣時會連累牧羊狗冇咗條命。

睇埋

文獻

英文圈嘅人做咗好多狼相關嘅研究，以下係一啲英文文獻：

Coleman, Jon T. (2006). Vicious: Wolves and Men in America. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11972-5.
Dutcher, Jim; Dutcher, Jamie (2003). Wolves at Our Door: The Extraordinary Story of the Couple Who Lived with Wolves. William Andrew. ISBN 978-0-7434-0049-7.
Fischer, Hank (1995). Wolf Wars. Falcon. ISBN 978-1-56044-352-0.
Fuller, Todd K. (2004). Wolves of the World. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-640-6.
Grooms, Steve (1999). Return of the Wolf. Northword Press. ISBN 978-1-55971-717-5.
Hampton, Bruce (1997). The Great American Wolf. Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8050-5528-3.
Harrington, Fred H.; Paquet, Paul C. (1982). Wolves of the world: perspectives of behavior, ecology, and conservation. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-8155-0905-9.
Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. ISBN 978-0-7432-4936-2.
Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. ISBN 978-1-86189-879-1.
McIntyre, Rick (1996). A Society of Wolves: National Parks and the Battle over the Wolf. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-325-2.
McNamee, Thomas (1998). The Return of the Wolf to Yellowstone. Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8050-5792-8.
Mech, L. David (1966). Wolves of Isle Royale. U.S. Department of the Interior, Park Service.
Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1026-6.
Mech, L. David (1993). The Way of the Wolf. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-179-1.
Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-51696-7.
Murie, Adolph (1944). Wolves of Mount McKinley. U.S. Department of the Interior, Park Service.
Musiani, Marco; Boitani, Luigi; Paquet, Paul C. (2010). The World of Wolves: New Perspectives on Ecology, Behaviour, and Management. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-269-1.
Nie, Martin (2003). Beyond Wolves: The Politics of Wolf Recovery and Management. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11972-5.
Peterson, Rolf Olin (1977). Wolf Ecology and Prey Relationships on Isle Royale. National Park Service Scientific Monograph Series.
Young, Stanley P.; Goldman, Edward A. (1944). The Wolves of North America, Part I. New York, Dover Publications, Inc.
Zimen, Erik (1981). The Wolf: His Place in the Natural World. Souvenir Press. ISBN 978-0-285-62411-5.

引咗

篇文用咗嘅行話或者專有名詞，英文（或者其他外語）名如下：

↑ apex predator
↑ Bergmann's rule
↑ undercoat
↑ guard hair
↑ carrion
↑ cannibalism
↑ persistence hunting
↑ the stalk
↑ the encounter
↑ the rush
↑ the chase
↑ carotid artery
↑ surplus kill
↑ howling
↑ scent marking
↑ Sikhote-Alin
↑ hyena
↑ striped hyena
↑ monogamy
↑ estrus period
↑ Carl Linnaeus
↑ Systema Naturae
↑ Canis lupus lupus
↑ Holarctic
↑ cluster
↑ ecotype
↑ West Forest
↑ Boreal Forest
↑ Arctic
↑ High Arctic
↑ Baffin
↑ British Columbia
↑ Fairbanks
↑ rostrum
↑ population bottleneck
↑ gene flow
↑ IUCN Red List
↑ Least Concern
↑ First Nation
↑ contiguous United States
↑ Isle Royale
↑ Upper Peninsula of Michigan
↑ Glacier National Park
↑ Rocky Mountain
↑ Balkans
↑ Carpathian Mountains
↑ Baltic states
↑ Italian peninsula
↑ Iberian peninsula
↑ Jammu and Kashmir
↑ Apollo
↑ Mars
↑ Romulus and Remus
↑ Odin
↑ Fenrir
↑ オオカミ，日羅：ōkami；日文漢字：狼
↑ lycanthrope
↑ Sirius；古希臘文：Σείριος
↑ Aesop
↑ to cry wolf
↑ The Jungle Book
↑ cortisol
↑ rabies
↑ wolf hunting
↑ Theodore Roosevelt
↑ Strychnine

篇文引用咗以下呢啲文獻同網頁：

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Boitani, L., Phillips, M. & Jhala, Y. (2018). "Canis lupus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2018. e.T3746A119623865.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Linnæus, Carl (1758). "Canis Lupus". Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin) (10 ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. pp. 39–40.
↑ Packard, J.M., 2003. Wolf behavior: reproductive, social, and intelligent. In: Mech, L.D., Boitani, L. (Eds.), Wolves: Behavior, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 35–65.
↑ Capitani, C. L. A. U. D. I. A., Bertelli, I., Varuzza, P., Scandura, M., & Apollonio, M. (2004). A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems. Mammalian Biology, 69(1), 1-10.
↑ Barja, I. (2009). Prey and prey-age preference by the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus in a multiple-prey ecosystem. Wildlife Biology, 15(2), 147-154.
↑ Muro, C., Escobedo, R., Spector, L., & Coppinger, R. P. (2011). Wolf-pack (Canis lupus) hunting strategies emerge from simple rules in computational simulations. Behavioural processes, 88(3), 192-197.
↑ Ballard, W. B., Carbyn, L. N., & Smith, D. W. (2003). Wolf interactions with non-prey (PDF). DigitalCommons @ University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
↑ Trousdale, A. (1989). Who's afraid of the big, bad wolf?. Children's literature in Education, 20(2), 69-79.
↑ Thiel, R. P., Merrill, S., & Mech, L. D. (1998). Tolerance by denning wolves, Canis lupus, to human disturbance. Canadian Field Naturalist, 112, 340-342.
↑ Virányi, Z., Gácsi, M., Kubinyi, E., Topál, J., Belényi, B., Ujfalussy, D., & Miklósi, Á. (2008). Comprehension of human pointing gestures in young human-reared wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (Canis familiaris). Animal cognition, 11(3), 373.
↑ Creel, S., & Rotella, J. J. (2010). Meta-analysis of relationships between human offtake, total mortality and population dynamics of gray wolves (Canis lupus). PloS one, 5(9), e12918.
↑ ^12.00 ^12.01 ^12.02 ^12.03 ^12.04 ^12.05 ^12.06 ^12.07 ^12.08 ^12.09 ^12.10 ^12.11 Heptner, V.G. & Naumov, N.P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, SIRENIA AND CARNIVORA (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. pp. 164–270.
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Mech, D. L. (1974). "Canis lupus". Mammalian Species. 37 (37): 1–6.
↑ Mech, L.D. (1970). The Wolf: the Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species. Natural History Press. p. 384.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 19.
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 ^16.4 Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 18.
↑ Hunter, Luke & Barrett, Priscilla (2011). A Field Guide to the Carnivores of the World. New Holland Publishers. p. 100.
↑ Macdonald, D.W. (2001). Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford University Press. p. 45.
↑ Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. pp. 129-132.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 23.
↑ ^21.0 ^21.1 Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 13 - 14.
↑ Therrien, F. O. (2005). "Mandibular force profiles of extant carnivorans and implications for the feeding behaviour of extinct predators". Journal of Zoology. 267 (3): 249–270.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 112.
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 Paquet, P. & Carbyn, L.W. (2003). "Gray wolf Canis lupus and allies". In Feldhamer, George A. & Chapman, J.A. (eds.). Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation. JHU Press. pp. 482–510.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 21.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 16-17.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 22.
↑ ^28.0 ^28.1 Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 19 - 20.
↑ Earle, M (1987). "A flexible body mass in social carnivores". American Naturalist. 129 (5): 755–760.
↑ Sorkin, Boris (2008). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators". Lethaia. 41 (4): 333–347.
↑ Mech, L. David (1966). The Wolves of Isle Royale. Fauna Series 7. Fauna of the National Parks of the United States. p. 76.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 172.
↑ ^33.0 ^33.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 201.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 109-110.
↑ Newsome, Thomas M.; Boitani, Luigi; Chapron, Guillaume; Ciucci, Paolo; Dickman, Christopher R.; Dellinger, Justin A.; López-Bao, José V.; Peterson, Rolf O.; Shores, Carolyn R.; Wirsing, Aaron J.; Ripple, William J. (2016). "Food habits of the world's grey wolves". Mammal Review. 46 (4): 255.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 107.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 ^37.3 Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. pp. 213 - 231.
↑ Gable, T. D.; Windels, S. K.; Homkes, A. T. (2018). "Do wolves hunt freshwater fish in spring as a food source?". Mammalian Biology. 91: 30–33.
↑ Woodford, Riley. "Alaska's Salmon-Eating Wolves 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2019年7月26號，.". Wildlifenews.alaska.gov.
↑ McAllister, I. (2007). The Last Wild Wolves: Ghosts of the Rain Forest. University of California Press. p. 144.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 109.
↑ Fuller, T.K. (2019). "Ch3-What wolves eat". Wolves: Spirit of the Wild. Chartwell Crestline. p. 53.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 180.
↑ Klein, D. R. (1995). "The introduction, increase, and demise of wolves on Coronation Island, Alaska". In Carbyn, L. N., Fritts, S. H., Seip, D. R. (eds.). Ecology and conservation of wolves in a changing world. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Occasional Publication No. 35. pp. 275–280.
↑ ^45.0 ^45.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 119 - 121.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 32.
↑ ^47.0 ^47.1 ^47.2 Nowak, Ronald M. & Paradiso, John L. (1983). Walker's Mammals of the World (4th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 953.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 43.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 196 - 199.
↑ ^50.0 ^50.1 ^50.2 ^50.3 Graves, Will (2007). Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages. Detselig Enterprises. p. 43 - 45.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 199 - 200.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 200 - 201.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 201 - 202.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 202 - 203.
↑ Graves, Will (2007). Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages. Detselig Enterprises. p. 45.
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 Zimen, Erik (1981). The Wolf: His Place in the Natural World. Souvenir Press. p. 217 - 218.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 144.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 54 - 55.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 185.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 58.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 122 - 125.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 2 - 3.
↑ ^63.0 ^63.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 1 - 2, 12 - 13.
↑ ^64.0 ^64.1 Jędrzejewski, W. O.; Schmidt, K.; Theuerkauf, J. R.; Jędrzejewska, B. A.; Kowalczyk, R. (2007). "Territory size of wolves Canis lupus: Linking local (Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland) and Holarctic-scale patterns". Ecography. 30: 66–76.
↑ Mech, L. D. (1977). "Wolf-Pack Buffer Zones as Prey Reservoirs". Science. 198 (4314): 320–321.
↑ ^66.0 ^66.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 19 - 26.
↑ Peters, R. P.; Mech, L. D. (1975). "Scent-marking in wolves". American Scientist. 63 (6): 628–637.
↑ Mech, D.L.; Adams, L.G.; Meier, T.J.; Burch, J.W.; Dale, B.W. (2003). "Ch.8-The Denali Wolf-Prey System". The Wolves of Denali. University of Minnesota Press. p. 163.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 67.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 38.
↑ Busch 2007, p. 59.
↑ ^72.0 ^72.1 Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 39 - 41.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 90.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 266 - 268.
↑ Robbins, Jim (1998). "Weaving A New Web: Wolves Change An Ecosystem". Smithsonian National Zoological Park.
↑ Giannatos G. (April 2004). "Conservation Action Plan for the golden jackal Canis aureus L. in Greece" (PDF). WWF Greece. pp. 1–47.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 269.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 261 - 263.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 263 - 264.
↑ Sunquist, Melvin E. & Sunquist, Fiona (2002). Wild cats of the world. University of Chicago Press. p. 167.
↑ "Conservation Groups Challenge Bush Administration Wolf Killing Plan — "It's going to be open season on wolves," says Natural Resources Defense Council". Yellowstone National Park.com. July 25, 2019.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 264 - 265.
↑ Grooms, Steve (2010). "Cougar Wolf Interactions: It's a Lot Like Cats and Dogs". International Wolf. 20 (2): 8–11.
↑ Perry, R. (1964). The World of the Tiger. Cassell & Company. p. 148.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 29.
↑ Heptner, V.G. & Sludskii, A.A. (1992). Mammals of the Soviet Union: Carnivora (hyaenas and cats), Volume 2. BRILL. pp. 313, 492
↑ Miquelle, D.G., Stephens, P.A., Smirnov, E.N., Goodrich, J.M., Zaumyslova, O.Yu. & Myslenkov, A.I. (2005). "Tigers and Wolves in the Russian Far East: Competitive Exclusion, Functional Redundancy and Conservation Implications". In Ray, J.C., Berger, J., Redford, K.H. & Steneck, R. (eds.). Large Carnivores and the Conservation of Biodiversity. Island Press. pp. 179–207.
↑ Monchot, H. & Mashkour, H. (2010). "Hyenas around the cities. The case of Kaftarkhoun (Kashan- Iran)". Journal of Taphonomy. 8 (1): 17-32.
↑ Mills, M. G. L.; Mills, Gus; Hofer, Heribert (1998). Hyaenas: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN. pp. 24–25.
↑ Nayak, S.; Shah, S.; Borah, J. (2015). "Going for the kill: an observation of wolf-hyaena interaction in Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India". Canid Biology & Conservation. 18 (7): 27–29.
↑ Dinets, Vladimir; Eligulashvili, Beniamin (2016). "Striped Hyaenas (Hyaena hyaena) in Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) packs: Cooperation, commensalism or singular aberration?". Zoology in the Middle East. 62: 85–87.
↑ Merrit, Dixon (January 7, 1921). "World's Greatest Animal Dead 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2019年7月24號，." (PDF). US Department of Agriculture Division of Publications. p. 2.
↑ ^93.0 ^93.1 ^93.2 Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. pp. 248.
↑ ^94.0 ^94.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 2 - 3.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 5.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 1.
↑ Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press. p. 436 - 440.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 175.
↑ Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. p. 234 - 238.
↑ ^100.0 ^100.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 42 - 46.
↑ Heptner, V. G.; Naumov, N. P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol. II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. p. 249 - 254.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 46 - 49.
↑ Fox, M.W. (1978). The Dog: Its Domestication and Behavior. Garland STPM. p. 33.
↑ Wozencraft, C. W. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reader, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1 (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 575–577.
↑ Musiani M, Leonard JA, Cluff H, Gates CC, Mariani S, et al. (2007). "Differentiation of tundra/taiga and boreal coniferous forest wolves: genetics, coat colour and association with migratory caribou". Mol. Ecol. 16 (19): 4149–70.
↑ ^106.0 ^106.1 ^106.2 Schweizer, Rena M.; Vonholdt, Bridgett M.; Harrigan, Ryan; Knowles, James C.; Musiani, Marco; Coltman, David; Novembre, John; Wayne, Robert K. (2016). "Genetic subdivision and candidate genes under selection in North American grey wolves". Molecular Ecology. 25 (1): 380–402.
↑ Geffen, ELI; Anderson, Marti J.; Wayne, Robert K. (2004). "Climate and habitat barriers to dispersal in the highly mobile grey wolf". Molecular Ecology. 13 (8): 2481-90.
↑ Pilot, Malgorzata; Jedrzejewski, Wlodzimierz; Branicki, Wojciech; Sidorovich, Vadim E.; Jedrzejewska, Bogumila; Stachura, Krystyna; Funk, Stephan M. (2006). "Ecological factors influence population genetic structure of European grey wolves". Molecular Ecology. 15 (14): 4533–53.
↑ Flower, Lucy O.H.; Schreve, Danielle C. (2014). "An investigation of palaeodietary variability in European Pleistocene canids". Quaternary Science Reviews. 96: 188–203.
↑ Leonard, Jennifer (2014). "Ecology drives evolution in grey wolves" (PDF). Evolution Ecology Research. 16: 461–473.
↑ Stronen, Astrid V.; Jä™Drzejewska, Bogumiå'a; Pertoldi, Cino; Demontis, Ditte; Randi, Ettore; Niedziaå'Kowska, Magdalena; Pilot, MaÅ'Gorzata; Sidorovich, Vadim E.; Dykyy, Ihor; Kusak, Josip; Tsingarska, Elena; Kojola, Ilpo; Karamanlidis, Alexandros A.; Ornicans, Aivars; Lobkov, Vladimir A.; Dumenko, Vitalii; Czarnomska, Sylwia D. (2013). "North-South Differentiation and a Region of High Diversity in European Wolves (Canis lupus)". PLOS ONE. 8, (10). e76454.
↑ Schweizer, Rena M.; Robinson, Jacqueline; Harrigan, Ryan; Silva, Pedro; Galverni, Marco; Musiani, Marco; Green, Richard E.; Novembre, John; Wayne, Robert K. (2016). "Targeted capture and resequencing of 1040 genes reveal environmentally driven functional variation in grey wolves". Molecular Ecology. 25 (1): 357–79.
↑ Thalmann, Olaf; Perri, Angela R. (2018). "Paleogenomic Inferences of Dog Domestication". In Lindqvist, C.; Rajora, O. (eds.). Paleogenomics. Population Genomics. Springer, Cham. pp. 273–306.
↑ Freedman, Adam H.; Gronau, Ilan; Schweizer, Rena M.; Ortega-Del Vecchyo, Diego; Han, Eunjung; et al. (2014). "Genome Sequencing Highlights the Dynamic Early History of Dogs". PLOS Genetics. 10 (1). e1004016.
↑ Skoglund, Pontus; Ersmark, Erik; Palkopoulou, Eleftheria; Dalén, Love (2015). "Ancient Wolf Genome Reveals an Early Divergence of Domestic Dog Ancestors and Admixture into High-Latitude Breeds". Current Biology. 25 (11): 1515–1519.
↑ Fan, Zhenxin; Silva, Pedro; Gronau, Ilan; Wang, Shuoguo; Armero, Aitor Serres; Schweizer, Rena M.; Ramirez, Oscar; Pollinger, John; Galaverni, Marco; Ortega Del-Vecchyo, Diego; Du, Lianming; Zhang, Wenping; Zhang, Zhihe; Xing, Jinchuan; Vilà, Carles; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Godinho, Raquel; Yue, Bisong; Wayne, Robert K. (2016). "Worldwide patterns of genomic variation and admixture in gray wolves". Genome Research. 26 (2): 163–73.
↑ Koblmüller, Stephan; Vilà, Carles; Lorente-Galdos, Belen; Dabad, Marc; Ramirez, Oscar; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Wayne, Robert K.; Leonard, Jennifer A. (2016). "Whole mitochondrial genomes illuminate ancient intercontinental dispersals of grey wolves (Canis lupus)". Journal of Biogeography. 43 (9): 1728–1738.
↑ Wayne, R. (1993). "Molecular evolution of the dog family". Trends in Genetics. 9 (6): 218–24.
↑ Wayne, R. K.; Benvenista, R. E.; Janczewski, D. N.; O'Brien, S. J. (1989). "17-Molecular and biomechanical evolution of the Carnivora". In Gittleman, J. L. (ed.). Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Springer. pp. 477–478.
↑ Vila, C.; Leonard, J. (2012). "1-Canid Phylogeny and the Origin of the Domestic Dog". In Ostrander, E. A.; Ruvinski, A. (eds.). Genetics of the Dog (2 ed.). CABI. p. 3.
↑ Wayne, R. & Ostrander, Elaine A. (1999). "Origin, genetic diversity, and genome structure of the domestic dog". BioEssays. 21 (3): 247–57.
↑ Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Gopalakrishan, Shyam; Vieira, Filipe G.; Samaniego Castruita, Jose A.; Raundrup, Katrine; Heide Jørgensen, Mads Peter; Meldgaard, Morten; Petersen, Bent; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Mikkelsen, Johan Brus; Marquard-Petersen, Ulf; Dietz, Rune; Sonne, Christian; Dalén, Love; Bachmann, Lutz; Wiig, Øystein; Hansen, Anders J.; Gilbert, M. Thomas P. (2018). "Population genomics of grey wolves and wolf-like canids in North America". PLOS Genetics. 14 (11): e1007745.
↑ Gopalakrishnan, Shyam; Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Ramos-Madrigal, Jazmín; Niemann, Jonas; Samaniego Castruita, Jose A.; Vieira, Filipe G.; Carøe, Christian; Montero, Marc de Manuel; Kuderna, Lukas; Serres, Aitor; González-Basallote, Víctor Manuel; Liu, Yan-Hu; Wang, Guo-Dong; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Mirarab, Siavash; Fernandes, Carlos; Gaubert, Philippe; Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Budd, Jane; Rueness, Eli Knispel; Heide-Jørgensen, Mads Peter; Petersen, Bent; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Bachmann, Lutz; Wiig, Øystein; Hansen, Anders J.; Gilbert, M. Thomas P. (2018). "Interspecific Gene Flow Shaped the Evolution of the Genus Canis". Current Biology. 28 (21): 3441–3449.
↑ Anderson, T. M.; Vonholdt, B. M.; Candille, S. I.; Musiani, M.; Greco, C.; Stahler, D. R.; Smith, D. W.; Padhukasahasram, B.; Randi, E.; Leonard, J. A.; Bustamante, C. D.; Ostrander, E. A.; Tang, H.; Wayne, R. K.; Barsh, G. S. (2009). "Molecular and Evolutionary History of Melanism in North American Gray Wolves". Science. 323 (5919): 1339–1343.
↑ Iacolina, Laura; Scandura, Massimo; Gazzola, Andrea; Cappai, Nadia; Capitani, Claudia; Mattioli, Luca; Vercillo, Francesca; Apollonio, Marco (2010). "Y-chromosome microsatellite variation in Italian wolves: A contribution to the study of wolf-dog hybridization patterns". Mammalian Biology - Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 75 (4): 341.
↑ ^126.0 ^126.1 Kopaliani, N.; Shakarashvili, M.; Gurielidze, Z.; Qurkhuli, T.; Tarkhnishvili, D. (2014). "Gene Flow between Wolf and Shepherd Dog Populations in Georgia (Caucasus)". Journal of Heredity. 105 (3): 345–53.
↑ Moura, A. E.; Tsingarska, E.; Dąbrowski, M. J.; Czarnomska, S. D.; Jędrzejewska, B. A.; Pilot, M. G. (2013). "Unregulated hunting and genetic recovery from a severe population decline: The cautionary case of Bulgarian wolves". Conservation Genetics. 15 (2): 405–417.
↑ ^128.0 ^128.1 ^128.2 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. pp. 321–324.
↑ "'Wolf Recovery under the Endangered Species Act 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2019年8月3號，." (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service.
↑ "Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Program 2015 Interagency Annual Report 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2017年6月25號，." (PDF). US Fish and Wildlife Service.
↑ "Washington Gray Wolf Conservation and Management 2018 Annual Report" (PDF). Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife.
↑ "Wolf Management Update California Department of Fish and Wildlife April - June 2019". California Department of Fish and Wildlife.
↑ Nie, M. A. (2003). Beyond Wolves: The Politics of Wolf Recovery and Management. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 118–119.
↑ Heffelfinger, James R; Nowak, Ronald M; Paetkau, David (2017). "Clarifying historical range to aid recovery of the Mexican wolf". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 81 (5): 766.
↑ "Europe is a Great Place to be a Large Meat-Eater". Smithsonian Magazine.
↑ "Status of large carnivore populations in Europe 2012-2016". European Commission.
↑ Goldthorpe, G. (April 2016). "The wolf in Eurasia - a regional approach to the conservation and management of a top-predator in Central Asia and the South Caucasus". Fauna & Flora International.
↑ "The Wolf in Russia - situations and problems 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2007年9月23號，." (PDF). Wolves and Humans Foundation.
↑ ^139.0 ^139.1 ^139.2 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 137.
↑ Şekercioğlu, Çağan (December 15, 2013). "Turkey's Wolves Are Texting Their Travels to Scientists".
↑ "Wolves in Turkey 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2019年4月6號，.". iberianature.com.
↑ Busch, R. H. (2007). Wolf Almanac, New and Revised: A Celebration Of Wolves And Their World (3 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 231.
↑ ^143.0 ^143.1 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 328.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 292.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 210.
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 128.
↑ Simek, Rudolf (2007). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. translated by Angela Hall. D.S. Brewer. p. 81.
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 78.
↑ Knight, John (1997). "On the Extinction of the Japanese Wolf". Asian Folklore Studies. Nanzan University. 56 (1): 129–159.
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 47.
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 50.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 123.
↑ Brosch, Noah (2008). Sirius Matters. Springer. p. 29.
↑ 《九歌·東君》
↑ 《江城子．密州出獵》
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 38 - 40.
↑ Bright, Michael (2006). Beasts of the Field: The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible. pp. 115–116.
↑ Marvin, Garry (2012). Wolf. Reaktion Books Ldt. p. 64 - 70.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 263.
↑ Graves, Will (2007). Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages. Detselig Enterprises. p. 21, 123.
↑ Cassidy, K, DW Smith, LD Mech, DR MacNulty, DR Stahler, MC Metz (2006). "Territoriality and interpack aggression in wolves: Shaping a social carnivore's life history. Rudyard Kipling's Law of the Jungle Meets Yellowstone's Law of the Mountains". Yellowstone Science. 24 (1): 37–41.
↑ Kipling, R. (2016). The jungle book. Simon and Schuster.
↑ 〈【粵語講呢啲】狼．狼死．狼胎．狼過華秀隻狗〉。原著喺2020年6月3號歸檔。喺2020年6月3號搵到。
↑ Creel, S., Fox, J.E., Hardy, A., Sands, J., Garrott, B., & Peterson, R.O. (2002). "Snowmobile activity and glucocorticoid stress responses in wolves and elk". Conservation Biology. 16 (3): 809–814.
↑ Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 173.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 307.
↑ ^167.0 ^167.1 ^167.2 ^167.3 ^167.4 Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 305.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 306.
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 309.
↑ Vanak, A.T., Dickman, C.R., Silva-Rodriguez, E.A., Butler, J.R.A., Ritchie, E.G. (2014). "Top-dogs and under-dogs: competition between dogs and sympatric carnivores". In Gompper, M.E. (ed.). Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–93.
↑ ^171.0 ^171.1 ^171.2 Lescureux, Nicolas; Linnell, John D.C. (2014). "Warring brothers: The complex interactions between wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (Canis familiaris) in a conservation context". Biological Conservation. 171: 232–245.
↑ Boitani, L. (1983). "Wolf and dog competition in Italy". Acta Zoologica Fennica (174): 259–264.
↑ ^173.0 ^173.1 ^173.2 Backeryd, J. (2007). "Wolf attacks on dogs in Scandinavia 19952005 – Will wolves in Scandinavia go extinct if dog owners are allowed to kill a wolf attacking a dog? 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期2019年7月17號，." (PDF). Examensarbete, Institutionen för ekologi, Grimsö forskningsstation. Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet.
↑ Shivik, John A. (2006). "Tools for the Edge: What's New for Conserving Carnivores". BioScience. 56 (3): 253.
↑ Mertens, A., Schneider, H., 2005. What is wrong with Romanian livestock guarding dogs? A discussion. Carnivore Damage Prevent. News 9: 9–14.
↑ Espuno, Nathalie; Lequette, Benoit; Poulle, Marie-Lazarine; Migot, Pierre; Lebreton, Jean-Dominique (2004). "Heterogeneous response to preventive sheep husbandry during wolf recolonization of the French Alps". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 32 (4): 1195–1208.
↑ ^177.0 ^177.1 ^177.2 ^177.3 ^177.4 ^177.5 Linnell, J. D. C. (2002). The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans (PDF). Norsk Institutt for Naturforskning (NINA).
↑ Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi, eds. (2003). Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 300 - 304.
↑ Roosevelt, T. (1909). Hunting the grisly and other sketches; an account of the big game of the United States and its chase with horse, hound, and rifle. G. P. Putnam's sons. pp. 179-207.
↑ Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 108.
↑ Graves, Will (2007). Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages. Detselig Enterprises. p. 121 - 140.
↑ Tucker, P. & Weide, B. (1998). "Can You Turn a Wolf into a Dog" (PDF). Wild Sentry.

拎

（英文）加州狼中心
（英文）國際狼中心
（英文）聯合王國狼保育信託

[105] 鬣狗雖然個名叫狗，但其實並唔係一種犬科動物。

[137] 想知點樣用數學化嘅方法想像呢樣嘢，可以睇吓聚類分析。

[226] 可以睇吓電視橋段網嘅 Noble Wolf。

[240] 不過噉做有陣時會連累牧羊狗冇咗條命。

[6] x predator

[17] Bergmann's rule

[30] undercoat

[31] uard hair

[45] rrion

[48] sm

[54] rsistence hunting

[57] the stalk

[60] the encounter

[62] the rush

[64] the chase

[67] rotid artery

[69] surplus kill

[80] wling

[81] scent marking

[102] Sikhote-Alin

[104] yena

[109] striped hyena

[112] y

[119] strus period

[125] Carl Linnaeus

[126] Systema Naturae

[127] Canis lupus lupus

[129] Holarctic

[136] uster

[139] type

[140] West Forest

[141] Boreal Forest

[142] Arctic

[143] High Arctic

[144] Baffin

[145] British Columbia

[147] Fairbanks

[148] rostrum

[150] ulation bottleneck

[159] w

[166] IUCN Red List

[167] Least Concern

[168] First Nation

[170] tiguous United States

[171] Isle Royale

[172] Upper Peninsula of Michigan

[174] Glacier National Park

[175] Rocky Mountain

[182] Balkans

[183] Carpathian Mountains

[184] Baltic states

[185] Italian peninsula

[186] Iberian peninsula

[194] Jammu and Kashmir

[196] Apollo

[198] Mars

[200] Romulus and Remus

[202] Odin

[203] Fenrir

[206] オオカミ，日羅：ōkami；日文漢字：狼

[209] ycanthrope

[212] Sirius；古希臘文：Σείριος

[216] Aesop

[217] to cry wolf

[223] The Jungle Book

[228] rtisol

[245] rabies

[246] wolf hunting

[247] Theodore Roosevelt

[249] Strychnine

[boitani2018-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Boitani, L., Phillips, M. & Jhala, Y. (2018). "Canis lupus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2018. e.T3746A119623865.

[carl1758-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Linnæus, Carl (1758). "Canis Lupus". Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin) (10 ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. pp. 39–40.

[3] Packard, J.M., 2003. Wolf behavior: reproductive, social, and intelligent. In: Mech, L.D., Boitani, L. (Eds.), Wolves: Behavior, Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 35–65.

[4] Capitani, C. L. A. U. D. I. A., Bertelli, I., Varuzza, P., Scandura, M., & Apollonio, M. (2004). A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems. Mammalian Biology, 69(1), 1-10.

[5] Barja, I. (2009). Prey and prey-age preference by the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus in a multiple-prey ecosystem. Wildlife Biology, 15(2), 147-154.

[7] Muro, C., Escobedo, R., Spector, L., & Coppinger, R. P. (2011). Wolf-pack (Canis lupus) hunting strategies emerge from simple rules in computational simulations. Behavioural processes, 88(3), 192-197.

[8] Ballard, W. B., Carbyn, L. N., & Smith, D. W. (2003). Wolf interactions with non-prey (PDF). DigitalCommons @ University of Nebraska - Lincoln.

[9] Trousdale, A. (1989). Who's afraid of the big, bad wolf?. Children's literature in Education, 20(2), 69-79.

[10] Thiel, R. P., Merrill, S., & Mech, L. D. (1998). Tolerance by denning wolves, Canis lupus, to human disturbance. Canadian Field Naturalist, 112, 340-342.

[11] Virányi, Z., Gácsi, M., Kubinyi, E., Topál, J., Belényi, B., Ujfalussy, D., & Miklósi, Á. (2008). Comprehension of human pointing gestures in young human-reared wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (Canis familiaris). Animal cognition, 11(3), 373.

[12] Creel, S., & Rotella, J. J. (2010). Meta-analysis of relationships between human offtake, total mortality and population dynamics of gray wolves (Canis lupus). PloS one, 5(9), e12918.

[heptner1998-13] 12.00 ^12.01 ^12.02 ^12.03 ^12.04 ^12.05 ^12.06 ^12.07 ^12.08 ^12.09 ^12.10 ^12.11 Heptner, V.G. & Naumov, N.P. (1998). Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, SIRENIA AND CARNIVORA (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears). Science Publishers, Inc. USA. pp. 164–270.

[mech1974-14] 13.0 ^13.1 Mech, D. L. (1974). "Canis lupus". Mammalian Species. 37 (37): 1–6.

[15] Mech, L.D. (1970). The Wolf: the Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species. Natural History Press. p. 384.

[16] Lopez, Barry H. (1978). Of Wolves and Men. J. M. Dent and Sons Limited. p. 19.

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[28] Mech, L. David (1981). The Wolf: The Ecology and Behaviour of an Endangered Species. University of Minnesota Press. p. 16-17.

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[39] Newsome, Thomas M.; Boitani, Luigi; Chapron, Guillaume; Ciucci, Paolo; Dickman, Christopher R.; Dellinger, Justin A.; López-Bao, José V.; Peterson, Rolf O.; Shores, Carolyn R.; Wirsing, Aaron J.; Ripple, William J. (2016). "Food habits of the world's grey wolves". Mammal Review. 46 (4): 255.

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[50] Klein, D. R. (1995). "The introduction, increase, and demise of wolves on Coronation Island, Alaska". In Carbyn, L. N., Fritts, S. H., Seip, D. R. (eds.). Ecology and conservation of wolves in a changing world. Canadian Circumpolar Institute, Occasional Publication No. 35. pp. 275–280.

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