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蟻鵙科

维基百科，自由的百科全书

这是本页的一个历史版本，由ALBot（留言 | 贡献）在2009年10月30日 (五) 02:44 （機器人：修正錯誤050（en dash or em dash））编辑。这可能和当前版本存在着巨大的差异。

蟻鳥
雙色蟻鳥
科學分類
界： 動物界 Animalia
門： 脊索動物門 Chordata
綱： 鳥綱 Aves
目： 雀形目 Passeriformes
亞目： 霸鶲亞目 Tyranni
下目： 霸鶲下目 Tyrannides
科： 蟻鵙科 Thamnophilidae
Swainson, 1824
蟻鳥的分佈地
蟻鳥的分佈地
屬
  • Batara
  • Cymbilaimus
  • Dichrozona
  • Drymophila
  • Dysithamnus
  • Epinecrophylla
  • Formicivora
  • Frederickena
  • Gymnocichla
  • Gymnopithys
  • Herpsilochmus
  • Hylophylax
  • Hypocnemis
  • Hypocnemoides
  • Hypoedaleus
  • Mackenziaena
  • Megastictus
  • Microrhopias
  • Myrmeciza
  • Myrmoborus
  • Myrmochanes
  • Myrmorchilus
  • Myrmornis
  • Myrmotherula
  • Neoctantes
  • Percnostola
  • Phaenostictus
  • Phlegopsis
  • Pithys
  • Pygiptila
  • Rhegmatorhina
  • Rhopornis
  • Sakesphorus
  • Schistocichla
  • Sclateria
  • Skutchia
  • Taraba
  • Terenura
  • Thamnistes
  • Thamnomanes
  • Thamnophilus

蟻鳥是蟻鵙科（学名：Thamnophilidae）的雀，分佈在亞熱帶及熱帶的中美洲及南美洲，由墨西哥至阿根廷。其下共有超過200個物種，包括蟻鵙、蟻鷯、蟻綠鵑、紅眼蟻鳥、裸眼雀及丘鳥，並與蟻鶇的蟻鶇科、竄鳥、食蚊鳥及灶巢鳥。

蟻鳥一般都很細小，翼圓，有強壯的腳。大部份都是呈暗灰色、白色、褐色及赤色，在式樣及顏色上表現了兩性異形。一些物種向敵人展示背部或肩膀上的白斑來警告對方。大部份的喙都很重型，尖端呈鈎狀。

大部份蟻鳥物種都棲息在森林中，只有少數棲息在其他地方。昆蟲及其他節肢動物是其主要食物，牠們有時也會吃細小的無脊椎動物。大部份物種都是在森林下層及中層覓食，只有少數在冠層及地上覓食。很多物種都是混種覓食，少量是核心成員。約有18個物種專門於跟蹤兵蟻吃其他細小的無脊椎動物。

蟻鳥是一夫一妻制的，且會保護自己的地盤。牠們一般會生兩隻蛋，鳥巢懸掛在樹枝上，放在樹枝、樹樁或地上。雙親都會孵化及餵養雛雀。雛雀換羽後，雙親會各自照顧一隻雛雀。

現時38個物種因人類活動而受到威脅。蟻鳥並非獵人或寵物貿易的目標。主要的威脅是失去棲息地，令牠們的群落分化及增加被掠食的情況。

分類

蟻鵙科以往其實是一個亞科，即蟻鵙亞科，分類在蟻鶇科下。蟻鶇科以往被認為就是蟻鳥的科，而蟻鵙亞科盯是一般的蟻鳥。由於蟻鵙亞科在胸骨及鳴管的結構，並DNA-DNA雜交上的不同[1]，牠們與蟻鶇科分開，自成一科。[2]蟻鵙科屬於霸鶲亞目下的霸鶲下目，位於下目內較為基底的位置。[3]蟻鵙科的姊妹分類相信是食蚊鳥。

蟻鵙科下有超過200個物種，一般稱為蟻鵙、蟻鷯、蟻綠鵑、紅眼蟻鳥、裸眼雀。雖然蟻鵙科的科學分類是基於19世紀中葉的研究，而當時就只有少於現時一半的物種，但在比較肌紅蛋白內含子2、甘油醛3-磷酸內含子11及粒線體DNA細胞色素bDNA序列後，大體確認這個分類。[4]蟻鵙科下有兩個主要的分支：一是蟻鵙及其他喙較大的物種；二是傳統的蟻鷯及其他喙較幼長的物種。

蟻鵙科包含了幾個大型的屬，與及多個細小或單型的屬。當中有幾個的分類較難釐定，可能是一個未被確認的分支。[4]

形態

雙色蟻鳥的腳很強壯，可以抓住垂直的樹幹。其腳上的肌肉就已經佔了總體重的13%。

蟻鳥是一類細小中等大小的雀，最大的巨蟻鵙就長45厘米及重150克，最少的姬蟻鷯就長8厘米及重7克。[5]一般而言，牠們的翼短而圓，可以在茂密的樹林中飛行。腳大及蛋壯，尤其是那些會跟蹤螞蟻的物種，可以抓住垂直的樹幹。這類蟻鳥的爪比其他的更為長，腳底亦較粗糙。蟻鳥的跗蹠骨長度與覓食策略有關。跗蹠骨較長的一般會在樹枝上站著捕食昆蟲，較短跗蹠骨的則會以翼來捕捉獵物。[6]

大部份蟻鳥的喙都相對較大及重型。[5]有幾屬蟻鵙的喙尖彎曲，而所有蟻鳥都有鋸齒狀的喙端，可以幫助抓住及咬開昆蟲。丘鳥的喙向上彎及像鑿子。[7]

蟻鳥的羽毛柔軟，色彩並不鮮艷。[5]大部份物種都是呈黑色、白色、赤色、栗色及褐色。羽毛可以是均一顏色或是有斑紋和斑點。牠們的兩性異形呈現在羽毛顏色及斑紋上。整體而言，雄雀多是灰色、黑色或白色組成的斑紋，而雌雀的則是淺黃、赤色及褐色。例如雄性的點翅蟻鷯主要是黑色的，而雌性的下身則是呈銹色的。[8]在一些屬中，如Myrmotherula，雌雀羽毛可以用來分辨物種。[9]很多蟻鳥的背上、肩膀或翼底都有明顯白色的斑紋，當受到威脅時，牠們就會展示這個斑紋來嚇退敵人。[10]

發聲

橫斑蟻鵙的歌聲。

蟻鳥的叫聲一般都是重複及簡單音符組成。霸鶲亞目的鳴管較為簡單。蟻鳥的歌聲很獨特，人耳也能夠分辨。[5]蟻鳥以叫聲來溝通，尤其是在晚上的森林中。大部份物種最少有兩種叫聲，包括響亮歌聲及柔和歌聲。從歌聲的語境就可以得知其作用。側如一些響亮歌聲就與地盤有關，當有鳥類接近邊界時就會發出。鄰近地盤的蟻鳥會以歌聲受影響的程度來確定敵人的遠近。[11]雄雀在保護地盤時會與另一雄雀對峙，而雌雀則會與雌雀對峙。[5]雄雀和雌雀有可能會以響亮歌聲二重奏來維持關係。[12]柔和歌聲的功用較為複雜，可能與維持關係有關。除了這兩類外，牠們也會罵潛在的掠食者。[13]一些物種也會使用共同語言，如跟蹤螞蟻的叫聲提示。[14]

分佈及棲息地

橫斑蟻鵙分佈在墨西哥至阿根廷。

蟻鳥的分佈地是新熱帶界，大部份都出沒於熱帶。只有少量物種擴展到墨西哥南部及阿根廷北部。一些物種，如橫斑蟻鵙，其分佈就橫跨了大部份南美洲及中美洲；其他如灰喉蟻鷯就只有很細小的分佈地。[15]

蟻鳥主要棲息在潮濕的低地雨林。[5]少量物種會棲息在高地，少於10%的物種會達至海拔2000米，差不多沒有物種會棲於高於海拔3000米的地方。棲於最高海拔的是在亞馬遜盆地，在巴西、哥倫比亞、玻利維亞及秘魯的單一位點就有多達45個物種。物種的數量隨分佈地的偏遠而減少，如墨西哥就只有7個物種。多樣性較低的地區可能存在局部的特有種，如委內瑞拉蟻鳥就只限於巴西、委內瑞拉及哥倫比亞的白砂土壤。[16]一些物種會特別與某些微小生境有關，如竹蟻鵙就分佈在竹的環境。[17]

行為

蟻鳥是日間活動的，但大部份都不願直接走到陽光下。牠們會進行蟻浴，即利用螞蟻或其他節肢動物來擦羽毛。[18]傳統上認為這是一種方法來去除及控制羽毛上的寄生蟲，但也有指蟻鳥是以此來處理獵物身上難吃的物質。[5]

覓食

在葉子上收集昆蟲的雜色蟻鵙。

蟻鳥的主要食物為節肢動物。[5]當中多數為昆蟲，包括草蜢及蟋蟀、蟑螂、螳螂、竹節蟲及蝴蝶和蛾的幼蟲。牠們也會吃蜘蛛、蝎子及蜈蚣。牠們可以快速吞下細小的獵物，也會在樹枝上處理較大型的獵物，去除其翅膀及刺。較大的物種甚至可以吃青蛙及蜥蜴，但這樣並非牠們的主流食物。[19]牠們也會吃果實、蛋及蛞蝓。[5]

蟻鳥會以多種方式茶捕捉獵物。由於大部傷蟻鳥都是棲於樹上，所以多是在森林下層及中層覓食，只有少數在冠層覓食。只有少數物種會在葉堆中覓食，例如翅斑蟻鳥會在茂密的葉堆中覓食。牠們不會用腳抓擦葉子，而是用喙將葉子翻轉。[20]一些蟻鳥會站在樹枝上注視獵物，並迅速向前捕捉獵物；其他的則會以翼來捕捉獵物。[6]不論是哪一個方法，牠們都會在葉間或下層跳來跳去尋找獵物。暫停的時間各異，不過較細小的物種則傾向較為活躍，暫停的時間較短。[5]

多種合群

正在吃毛蟲的雄性黑頭蟻鵙。

大部份蟻鳥都是以多種合群來覓食的[5]，涉及分佈地內高百分比的物種。當中一些是核心成員，牠們會與其他物種的核心成員分享地盤，但同種的則會被排除在外。核心成員會發出響亮及特有的叫聲，其顯而易見的羽毛也可以吸引及召集合群。合群的組織會就地理而有所不同：例如在亞馬遜盆地，Thamnomanes會是領導的核心物種；[10]而在其他地方，斑翅蟻鷯及格喉蟻鷯會是核心成員。[5]合群的其他成員包括其他的蟻鳥、砍林鳥、灶巢鳥及捕蠅鳥等。[10]多種合群的好處是可以降低被猛禽掠食的機會。[21]Thamnomanes會在所領導的合群中發出響亮的警報聲，其他成員就會作出相應行動。Thamnomanes會作為執拾者，其他的成員則為驅獵者。[5]在合群中，由於成員間不同的生態位，故競爭較少。[13]

跟蹤蟻群

純色蟻鳥經常到訪兵蟻群覓食。

Swarms of army ants are an important resource used by some species of antbird, and the one from which the family's common name is derived. Many species of tropical ant form large raiding swarms, but the swarms are often nocturnal or raid underground. While birds visit these swarms when they occur, the species most commonly attended by birds is the Neotropical species Eciton burchellii,[18] which is both diurnal and surface-raiding. It was once thought that attending birds were actually eating the ants, but numerous studies in various parts of E. burchellii's range has shown that the ants act as beaters, flushing insects, other arthropods and small vertebrates into the waiting flocks of "ant-followers". The improvement in foraging efficiency can be dramatic; a study of Spotted Antbirds found that they made attempts at prey every 111.8 seconds away from ants, but at swarms they made attempts every 32.3 seconds.[22] While many species of antbirds (and other families) may opportunistically feed at army ant swarms, 18 species of antbird are obligate ant-followers, obtaining most of their diet from swarms.[5] With only three exceptions, these species never regularly forage away from ant swarms. A further four species regularly attend swarms but are as often seen away from them. Obligate ant-followers visit the nesting bivouacs of army ants in the morning to check for raiding activities; other species do not.[23] These species tend to arrive at swarms first, and their calls are used by other species to locate swarming ants.[14]

Because army ants are unpredictable in their movements, it is impractical for obligate ant-followers to maintain a territory that always contains swarms to feed around.[5] Antbirds have evolved a more complicated system than the strict territoriality of most other birds. They generally (details vary among species) maintain breeding territories but travel outside those territories in order to feed at swarms. Several pairs of the same species may attend a swarm, with the dominant pair at the swarm being the pair which holds the territory that the swarm is in. In addition to competition within species, competition among species exists, and larger species are dominant. In its range, the Ocellated Antbird is the largest of the obligate ant-following antbirds and is dominant over other members of the family, although it is subordinate to various species from other families (including certain woodcreepers, motmots and the Rufous-vented Ground-cuckoo). At a swarm, the dominant species occupies positions above the central front of the swarm, which yields the largest amount of prey. Smaller, less dominant species locate themselves further away from the centre, or higher above the location of the dominant species, where prey is less plentiful.[18]

繁殖

Antbirds are monogamous, in almost all cases forming pair bonds that last the life of the pair.[5] In the White-plumed Antbird divorces between pairs are common, but, as far as known, this species is exceptional. In most species the pair defends a classic territory, although the nesting territories of ant-followers are slightly different (see feeding above). Territories vary in size from as small as 0.5 ha for the Manu Antbird, to 1500 m (5000 ft) in diameter for the Ocellated Antbird. Ocellated Antbirds have an unusual social system where the breeding pair forms the nucleus of a group or clan that includes their male offspring and their mates. These clans, which can number up to eight birds, work together to defend territories against rivals. Pair bonds are formed with courtship feeding, where the male presents food items to the female.[5] In Spotted Antbirds males may actually feed females sufficiently for the female to cease feeding herself, although she will resume feeding once copulation has occurred.[22] Mutual grooming also plays a role in courtship in some species.[24]

The Ocellated Antbird has an unusual social system of shared breeding territories. One dominant pair may share a territory with up to six other birds.

The nesting and breeding biology of antbirds have not been well–studied. Even in relatively well-known species the breeding behaviour can be poorly known; for example the nest of the Ocellated Antbird was first described in 2004.[25] Nests are constructed by both parents, although the male undertakes more of the work in some species. Antbird nests are cups of vegetation such as twigs, dead leaves and plant fibre, and they follow two basic patterns: either suspended or supported.[5] Suspended cups, which may hang from forks in branches, or between two branches, are the more common style of nest. Supported nests rest upon branches, amongst vines, in hollows, and sometimes on mounds of vegetation on the ground. Each species nests at the level where it forages, so a midstory species would build its nest in the midstory. Closely related species nest in the same ways. For example antvireos in the genus Dysithamnus are all suspension nesters.[26]

A female Variable Antshrike constructing a nest

Almost all antbirds lay two eggs.[5] A few species of antshrike lay three eggs, and a smaller number of antbirds lay one egg, but this is unusual. Small clutch sizes are typical of tropical birds compared to more temperate species of the same size, possibly due to nest predation, although this is disputed.[27] Both parents participate in incubation, although only the female incubates at night. The length of time taken for chicks to hatch is 14–16 days in most species, although some, such as the Dusky Antbird, can take as long as 20 days. The altricial chicks are born naked and blind. Both parents brood the young until they are able to thermoregulate, although, as with incubation, only the female broods at night.[5] In common with many songbirds, the parents take faecal sacs for disposal away from the nest. Both parents feed the chicks, often bringing large prey items. When the chicks reach fledging age, after 8–15 days, attending parents call their chicks. As each chick leaves the nest it is cared for exclusively from then on by the parent that was present then. After the first chick fledges and leaves with a parent the remaining parent may increase the supply of food to speed up the process of fledging. After fledging, chicks spend the first few days well hidden as the parents bring them food. Chicks of some species may not become independent of the parents for as long as four months in some antwrens, but two months is more typical for the rest of the family.

生態

Antbirds are common components of the avifauna of some parts of the Neotropics and are thought to be important in some ecological processes. They are preyed upon by birds of prey, and their tendency to join flocks is thought to be a protection against such predation.[21] Some species, such as the White-bibbed Antbird, are preyed upon by the Greater Round-eared Bat, and some, such as the Scaled Antbird, are the preferred prey of that species.[28] Nests, including incubating adults, chicks and eggs, are vulnerable to predators, particularly snakes but also nocturnal mammals.[5] Nesting success is low for many species, particularly in areas of fragmented habitat.[5][29]

It was once suggested that the relationship between the obligate and regular ant-followers and the army ants, particularly Eciton burchellii, was mutualistic, with the ants benefiting by having the birds chase prey back down towards them. However experiments where ant-followers were excluded have shown that the foraging success of the army ants was 30% lower when the birds were present, suggesting that the birds' relationship was in fact parasitic.[30] This has resulted in a number of behaviours by the ants in order to reduce kleptoparasitism, including hiding of secured prey in the leaf litter and caching of food on trails. It has been suggested that the depressive effect of this parasitism slows the development of E. burchellii swarms and in turn benefits other ant species which are preyed upon by army ants. The ant-following antbirds are themselves followed by three species of butterfly in the family Ithomiinae which feed on their droppings.[31] Bird droppings are usually an unpredictable resource in a rainforest, but the regular behaviour of ant-followers makes the exploitation of this resource possible.

保育狀況

The Pectoral Antwren of Brazil is threatened by the loss of deciduous forest and is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN.

As of April 2008, 38 species are considered by the IUCN to be near threatened or worse and therefore at risk of extinction.[32] Antbirds are neither targeted by the pet trade nor large enough to be hunted; the principal cause of the decline in antbird species is habitat loss.[5] The destruction or modification of forests has several effects on different species of antbirds. The fragmentation of forests into smaller patches affects species that are averse to crossing gaps as small as roads. If these species become locally extinct in a fragment, this reluctance to cross unforested barriers makes their re-establishment unlikely. Smaller forest fragments are unable to sustain mixed-species feeding flocks, leading to local extinctions.[33] Another risk faced by antbirds in fragmented habitat is increased nest predation. An unplanned experiment in fragmentation occurred on Barro Colorado Island, a former hill in Panama that became an isolated island during the flooding caused by the creation of the Panama Canal. Numerous species of antbird formerly resident in the area were extirpated, in no small part due to increased levels of nest predation on the island.[34] While the species lost from Barro Colorado are not globally threatened, they illustrate the vulnerability of species in fragmented habitats and help explain the declines of some species. The majority of threatened species have very small natural ranges.[5] Some are also extremely poorly known; for example the Rio de Janeiro Antwren is known only from a single specimen collected in 1982, although there have been unconfirmed reports since 1994 and it is currently listed as critically endangered.[35] Additionally, new species are discovered at regular intervals; the Caatinga Antwren was described in 2000, the Acre Antshrike in 2004, the Sincorá Antwren in 2007, and the description of a relative of the Paraná Antwren discovered in 2005 in the outskirts of São Paulo is being prepared.[36] While not yet scientifically described, conservation efforts have already been necessary, as the site of discovery was set out to be flooded to form a reservoir. Consequently, 72 individuals were captured and transferred to another locality.[37]

參考

  1. ^ Sibley, C. G. & J. E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and classification of birds. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. 1990. 
  2. ^ Rice, N.H. Further Evidence for Paraphyly of the Formicariidae (Passeriformes) (PDF). Condor. 2005, 107 (4): 910–5. doi:10.1650/7696.1. 
  3. ^ Irestedt, M.; Fjeldså, J.; Johansson, U.S. & Ericson, P.G.P. Systematic relationships and biogeography of the tracheophone suboscines (Aves: Passeriformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 2002, 23 (3): 499–512. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00034-9. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Irestedt, M.; Fjeldså, J.; Nylander, J.A.A. & Ericson, P.G.P. Phylogenetic relationships of typical antbirds (Thamnophilidae) and test of incongruence based on Bayes factors (PDF). BMC Evol. Biol. 2004, 4 (23). doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-23. 
  5. ^ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 Zimmer, K. & M. Isler. Family Thamnophilidae (Typical Antbirds). del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Christie D. (editors) (编). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 8: Broadbills to Tapaculos. Lynx Edicions. 2003: 459–531. ISBN 8487334504. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Schulenberg, T. S. Foraging behaviour, ecomorphology and systematic of some antshrikes (Formicariidae: Thamnomanes) (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 1983, 95: 505–21. 
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