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Sombrero Galaxy
The Sombrero Galaxy (M104) as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Credit: HST/NASA/ESA.
Observation data (J2000 epoch)
ConstellationVirgo[1]
Right ascension12h 39m 59.4s[2]
Declination-11° 37′ 23″[2]
Redshift1024 ± 5 km/s[2]
Distance29.3 ± 1.6 Mly (9.0 ± 0.5 Mpc)[3][4]a
TypeSA(s)a[2]
Apparent dimensions (V)8′.7 × 3′.5[2]
Apparent magnitude (V)9.0[2]
Other designations
Messier 104,[2] NGC 4594,[2] PGC 42407,[2] UGCA 293[2]

The Sombrero Galaxy (also known as M104 or NGC 4594) is an unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo. It has a bright nucleus, an unusually large central bulge, and a prominent dust lane in its inclined disk. The dark dust lane and the bulge give this galaxy the appearance of a sombrero. The galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 9.0, making it a galaxy that can easily be seen with amateur telescopes. The large bulge, the central supermassive black hole, and the dust lane all attract the attention of professional astronomers.

History

Discovery

The Sombrero Galaxy was discovered in March of 1767 by Pierre Méchain, who described the object in a May 1767 letter to J. Bernoulli that was later published in the Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch.[5][6] Charles Messier made a hand-written note about this and five other objects (now collectively recognized as M104 - M109) to his personal list of objects now known as the Messier Catalogue, but it was not "officially" included until 1921.[6] William Herschel independently discovered the object in 1784 and additionally noted the presence of a "dark stratum" in the galaxy's disk, what is now called a dust lane.[5][6] Later astronomers were able to connect Méchain's and Herschel's observations.[6]

Designation as a Messier object

In 1921, Camille Flammarion found Messier's personal list of the Messier objects including the hand-written notes about the Sombrero Galaxy. This was identified with object 4594 in the New General Catalogue, and Flammarion declared that it should be included in the Messier Catalogue. Since this time, the Sombrero Galaxy has been known as M104[6].

Historical redshift measurements

In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher discovered that the spectra of several galaxies, including the Sombrero Galaxy, are redshifted. The average velocity calculated from these redshifts was 400 km/s. The redshift for the Sombrero Galaxy itself was calculated to be 1100 km/s[7]. Slipher's spectra were among the first observations of the expansion of the universe, one of the key pieces of evidence for the Big Bang Theory.

Slipher also detected rotation within the spectra of the Sombrero Galaxy. His observations of galaxy rotation are among the first ever performed[7].

A mid-infrared image of the Sombrero Galaxy as seen by the Spitzer Space Telescope (SST). The white colors represent 3.6 and 5.8 micrometre emission from starlight. The red colors represent 8.0 micrometre emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) within the dust ring.[8] Credit: Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey/SST/NASA.

Dust ring

As noted above, this galaxy's most striking feature is the dust lane that crosses in front of the bulge of the galaxy. This dust lane is actually a symmetric ring that encloses the bulge of the galaxy.[8] Most of the cold atomic hydrogen gas[9] and the dust[8] lies within this ring. The ring might also contain most of the Sombrero Galaxy's cold molecular gas,[8] although this is an inference based on observations with low resolution and weak detections.[10][11] Additional observations are needed to confirm that the Sombrero galaxy's molecular gas is constrained to the ring. Based on infrared spectroscopy, the dust ring is the primary site of star formation within this galaxy.[8]

Nucleus

The nucleus of the Sombrero galaxy is classified as a low ionization nuclear emission region|low ionization nuclear emission region (LINER).[12] These are nuclear regions where ionized gas is present, but the ions are only weakly ionized (i.e. the atoms are missing relatively few electrons). The source of energy for ionizing the gas in LINERs has been debated extensively. Some LINER nuclei may be powered by hot, young stars found in star formation regions, whereas other LINER nuclei may be powered by active galactic nuclei (highly energetic regions that contain supermassive black holes). Infrared spectroscopy observations have demonstrated that the nucleus of the Sombrero Galaxy is probably devoid of any significant star formation activity. However, a supermassive black hole has been identified in the nucleus (as discussed in the subsection below), so this active galactic nucleus is probably the energy source that weakly ionizes the gas in the Sombrero Galaxy.[8]

Central supermassive black hole

In the 1990s, a research group led by John Kormendy demonstrated that a supermassive black hole is present within the Sombrero Galaxy.[13] Using spectroscopy data from both the CFHT and the Hubble Space Telescope, the group showed that the speed of rotation of the stars within the center of the galaxy could not be maintained unless a mass 1 billion times the mass of the Sun, or 109M☉, is present in the center.[13] This is among the most massive black holes measured in any nearby galaxies.

Synchrotron emission

At radio and X-ray wavelengths, the nucleus is a strong source of synchrotron emission.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20] Synchrotron emission is produced when high velocity electrons oscillate as they pass through regions with strong w:magnetic fields. This emission is actually quite common for w:active galactic nuclei. Although radio synchrotron emission may vary over time for some active galactic nuclei, the luminosity of the radio emission from the Sombrero Galaxy only varies 10-20%.[14]

Unidentified submillimeter emission

In 2006, two groups published measurements of the submillimeter radiation from the nucleus of the Sombrero Galaxy at a wavelength of 850 [[micrometres.[20][8] This submillimeter emission was found not to originate from the thermal emission from dust (which is commonly seen at infrared and submillimeter wavelengths), synchrotron emission (which is commonly seen at radio wavelengths), bremsstrahlung emission from hot gas (which is uncommonly seen at millimeter wavelengths), or molecular gas (which commonly produces submillimeter spectral lines).[8] The source of the submillimeter emission remains unidentified.

Globular clusters

The Sombrero Galaxy has a relatively large number of globular clusters. Observational studies of globular clusters in the Sombrero Galaxy have produced estimates of the population in the range of 1200 to 2000.[21][22][23] The ratio of the number of globular clusters to the total luminosity of the galaxy is high compared to the Milky Way and similar galaxies with small bulges, but the ratio is comparable to other galaxies with large bulges. These results have been repeatedly used to demonstrate that the number of globular clusters in galaxies is thought to be related to the size of the galaxies' bulges. The surface density of the globular clusters generally follows the light profile of the bulge except for near the center of the galaxy.[21][23][24]

Distance

At least two methods have been used to measure the distance to the Sombrero Galaxy.

The first method relies on comparing the measured fluxes from planetary nebulae in the Sombrero Galaxy to the known luminosities of planetary nebulae in the Milky Way. This method gave the distance to the Sombrero Galaxy as 29.0 ± 2.0 Mly (8.9 ± 0.6 Mpc).[3]

The other method used is the surface brightness fluctuations method. This method uses the grainy appearance of the galaxy's bulge to estimate the distance to it. Nearby galaxy bulges will appear very grainy, while more distant bulges will appear smooth. Early measurements using this technique gave distances of 30.6 ± 1.3 Mly (9.4 ± 0.4 Mpc).[25] Later, after some refinement of the technique, a distance of 32 ± 3 Mly (9.8 ± 0.8 Mpc) was measured.[26] This was even further refined in 2003 to be 29.6 ± 2.5 Mly (9.1 ± 0.8 Mpc).[4]

The average distance measured through these two techniques is 29.3 Mly (9.0 Mpc) with an uncertainty of 1.6 Mly (0.5 Mpc).b

Nearby galaxies and galaxy group information

The Sombrero Galaxy lies within a complex, filament-like cloud of galaxies that extends to the south of the Virgo Cluster.[27] However, it is unclear as to whether the Sombrero Galaxy is part of a formal galaxy group. Hierarchical methods for identifying groups, which determine group membership by considering whether individual galaxies belong to a larger aggregate of galaxies, typically produce results showing that the Sombrero Galaxy is part of a group that includes NGC 4487, NGC 4504, NGC 4802, UGCA 289, and possibly a few other galaxies.[27][28][29] However, results that rely on the percolation method (i.e. the "friends-of-friends" method), which links individual galaxies together to determine group membership, indicate that either the Sombrero Galaxy is not in a group[30] or that it may only be part of a galaxy pair with UGCA 287.[29]

Amateur astronomy observation information

The Sombrero Galaxy is located 11.5° west of Spica[6] and 5.5° northeast of Eta Corvi.[31] Although the galaxy is visible with 7x35 binoculars or a 4 inch amateur telescope,[31] an 8 inch telescope is needed to distinguish the bulge from the disk,[6] and a 10 or 12 inch telescope is needed to see the dark dust lane.[6]

Notes

^ ^ average(29.6 ± 2.5, 29.0 ± 2) = ((29.6 + 29.0) / 2) ± ((2.52 + 2.02)0.5 / 2) = 29.3 ± 1.6

References

  1. ↑ R. W. Sinnott, editor (1988). The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer. Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-933-34651-4. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". Results for NGC 4594. Retrieved 2006-11-22.
  3. ↑ a b H. C. Ford, X. Hui, R. Ciardullo, G. H. Jacoby, K. C. Freeman (1996). "The Stellar Halo of M104. I. A Survey for Planetary Nebulae and the Planetary Nebula Luminosity Function Distance". Astrophysical Journal. 458: 455–466. doi:10.1086/176828.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ a b Jensen, Joseph B.; Tonry, John L.; Barris, Brian J.; Thompson, Rodger I.; Liu, Michael C.; Rieke, Marcia J.; Ajhar, Edward A.; Blakeslee, John P. (February 2003). "Measuring Distances and Probing the Unresolved Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations". Astrophysical Journal. 583 (2): 712–726. doi:10.1086/345430.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ a b G. R. Kepple, G. W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 2. Willmann-Bell, Inc. p. 451. ISBN 0-943396-60-3.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h K. G. Jones (1991). Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters (2nd edition ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37079-5. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  7. ↑ a b V. M. Slipher (1915). "Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae". Popular Astronomy. 23: 21–24.
  8. ↑ a b c d e f g h G. J. Bendo, B. A. Buckalew, D. A. Dale, B. T. Draine, R. D. Joseph, R. C. Kennicutt Jr., K. Sheth, J.-D. T. Smith, F. Walter, D. Calzetti, J. M. Cannon, C. W. Engelbracht, K. D. Gordon, G. Helou, D. Hollenbach, E. J. Murphy, H. Roussel (2006). "Spitzer and JCMT Observations of the Active Galactic Nucleus in the Sombrero Galaxy (NGC 4594)". Astrophysical Journal. 645: 134–147. doi:10.1086/504033.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ E. Bajaja, G. van der Burg, S. M.; Faber, J. S. Gallagher, G. R. Knapp, W. W. Shane (1984). "The distribution of neutral hydrogen in the Sombrero galaxy, NGC 4594". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 141: 309–317.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ E. Bajaja, E. Hummel, R. Wielebinski, R.-J. Dettmar (1988). "The large-scale radio continuum structure of the Sombrero galaxy (NGC 4594)". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 202: 35–40.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ J. S. Young, S. Xie, L. Tacconi, P. Knezek, P. Viscuso, L. Tacconi-Garman, N. Scoville, S. Schneider, F. P. Schloerb, S. Lord, A. Lesser, J. Kenney, Y.-L. Huang, N. Devereux, M. Claussen, J. Case, J. Carpenter, M. Berry, L. Allen (1995). "The FCRAO Extragalactic CO Survey. I. The Data". Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 98: 219–257. doi:10.1086/192159.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ L. C. Ho, A. V. Filippenko, W. L. W. Sargent (1997). "A Search for "Dwarf" Seyfert Nuclei. III. Spectroscopic Parameters and Properties of the Host Galaxies". Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 112: 315–390. doi:10.1086/313041.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ a b J. Kormendy, R. Bender, E. A. Ajhar, A. Dressler, S. M. Faber, K. Gebhardt, C. Grillmair, T. R. Lauer, D. Richstone, S. Tremaine (1996). "Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopic Evidence for a 1 X 10 9 M☉ Black Hole in NGC 4594". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 473: L91–L94.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ a b A. G. de Bruyn, P. C. Crane, R. M. Price, J. B. Carlson (1976). "The radio sources in the nuclei of NGC 3031 and NGC 4594". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 46: 243–251.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ↑ E. Hummel, J. M. van der Hulst, J. M. Dickey (1984). "Central radio sources in spiral galaxies - Starburst or accretion". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 134: 207–221.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ A. Thean, A. Pedlar, M. J. Kukula, S. A. Baum, C. P. O'Dea (2000). "High-resolution radio observations of Seyfert galaxies in the extended 12-μm sample - I. The observations". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 314: 573–588. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03401.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ T. Di Matteo, C. L. Carilli, A. C. Fabian (2001). "Limits on the Accretion Rates onto Massive Black Holes in Nearby Galaxies". Astrophysical Journal. 547: 731–739.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ S. Pellegrini, G. Fabbiano, F. Fiore, G. Trinchieri, A. Antonelli (2002). "Nuclear and global X-ray properties of LINER galaxies: Chandra and BeppoSAX results for Sombrero and NGC 4736". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 383: 1–13. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011482.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ S. Pellegrini, A. Baldi, G. Fabbiano, D.-W. Kim (2003). "An XMM-Newton and Chandra Investigation of the Nuclear Accretion in the Sombrero Galaxy (NGC 4594)". Astrophysical Journal. 597: 175–185. doi:10.1086/378235.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ a b M. Krause, R. Wielebinski, M. Dumke (2006). "Radio polarization and sub-millimeter observations of the Sombrero galaxy (NGC 4594). Large-scale magnetic field configuration and dust emission". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 448: 133–142.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ a b K.-I. Wakamatsu (1977). "Radial distribution and total number of globular clusters in M104". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 89: 267–270.
  22. ↑ W. E. Harris, H. C. Harris, G. L. H. Harris (1984). "Globular clusters in galaxies beyond the local group. III NGC 4594 (the Sombrero)". Astronomical Journal. 89: 216–223. doi:10.1086/113504.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ↑ a b T. J. Bridges, D. A. Hanes (1992). "The globular cluster system of NGC 4594 (the Sombrero)". Astronomical Journal. 103: 800–814. doi:10.1086/116102.
  24. ↑ S. S. Larsen, D. A. Forbes, J. P. Brodie (2001). "Hubble Space Telescope photometry of globular clusters in the Sombrero galaxy". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 327: 1116–1126. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04797.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ E. A. Ajhar, T. R. Lauer, J. L. Tonry, J. P. Blakeslee, A. Dressler, J. A. Holtzman, M. Postman (1997). "Calibration of the Surface Brightness Fluctution Method for use with the Hubble Space Telescope". Astronomical Journal. 114: 626–634. doi:10.1086/118498.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ J. L. Tonry, A. Dressler, J. P. Blakeslee, E. A. Ajhar, A. B. Fletcher, G. A. Luppino, M. R. Metzger, C. B. Moore (2001). "The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances". Astrophysical Journal. 546 (2): 681–693. doi:10.1086/318301.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ↑ a b R. B. Tully (1988). Nearby Galaxies Catalog. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35299-1.
  28. ↑ P. Fouque, E. Gourgoulhon, P. Chamaraux, G. Paturel (1992). "Groups of galaxies within 80 Mpc. II - The catalogue of groups and group members". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 93: 211–233.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ a b G. Giuricin, C. Marinoni, L. Ceriani, A. Pisani (2000). "Nearby Optical Galaxies: Selection of the Sample and Identification of Groups". Astrophysical Journal. 543: 178–194. doi:10.1086/317070.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ A. Garcia (1993). "General study of group membership. II - Determination of nearby groups". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 100: 47–90.
  31. ↑ a b S. J. O'Meara (1998). The Messier Objects. Cambridge: Cambridge University. ISBN 0-521-55332-6.
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