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Cochinchina (/ˈkoʊtʃɪnˌtʃaɪnə/; Vietnamese: Miền Nam; Khmer: កូសាំងស៊ីន, romanized: Kausangsin; French: Cochinchine) is a historical exonym for part of Vietnam, depending on the contexts. Sometimes it referred to the whole of Vietnam, but it was commonly used to refer to the region south of the Gianh River.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was divided between the Trịnh lords to the north and the Nguyễn lords to the south. The two domains bordered each other on the Son–Gianh River. The northern section was called Tonkin by Europeans, and the southern part, Đàng Trong, was called Cochinchina by most Europeans and Quinam by the Dutch.^[1]

Lower Cochinchina (Basse-Cochinchine) or Southern Vietnam, whose principal city is Saigon, is the newest territory of the Vietnamese people in the movement of Nam tiến (Southward expansion). This region was also the first part of Vietnam to be colonized by the French. Inaugurated as the French Cochinchina in 1862, this colonial administrative unit reached its full extent from 1867 and was a constituent territory of French Indochina from 1887 until early 1945. So during the French colonial period, the label "Cochinchina" moved further south, and came to refer exclusively to the southernmost part of Vietnam, once under the influence of Cambodia. Beside the French colony of Cochinchina, the two other parts of Vietnam at the time were the French protectorates of Annam (Central Vietnam) and Tonkin (Northern Vietnam). South Vietnam (also called Nam Việt) was reorganized from the State of Vietnam after the Geneva Conference in 1954 by combining Lower Cochinchina with the southern part of Annam, the former protectorate.

Background

The conquest of the south of present-day Vietnam was a long process of territorial acquisition by the Vietnamese. It is called Nam tiến (Chinese characters: 南進, English meaning "South[ern] Advance") by Vietnamese historians. Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) greatly expanded its territory in 1470 under the great king Lê Thánh Tông, at the expense of Champa. The next two hundred years was a time of territorial consolidation and civil war with only gradual expansion southwards.^[2]

In 1516, Portuguese traders sailing from Malacca landed in Da Nang, Đại Việt,^[3] and established a presence there. They named the area "Cochin-China", borrowing the first part from the Malay Kuchi, which referred to all of Vietnam, and which in turn derived from the Chinese Jiāozhǐ, pronounced Giao Chỉ in Vietnam.^[4] They appended the "China" specifier to distinguish the area from the city and the princely state of Cochin in India, their first headquarters in the Malabar Coast.^[5]^[6]

As a result of a civil war that started in 1520, the Emperor of China sent a commission to study the political status of Annam in 1536. As a consequence of the delivered report, he declared war against the Mạc dynasty. The nominal ruler of the Mạc died at the very time that the Chinese armies passed the frontiers of the kingdom in 1537, and his father, Mạc Đăng Dung (the real power in any case), hurried to submit to the Imperial will, and declared himself to be a vassal of China. The Chinese declared that both the Lê dynasty and the Mạc had a right to part of the lands and so they recognised the Lê rule in the southern part of Vietnam while at the same time recognising the Mạc rule in the northern part, which was called Tunquin (i.e. Tonkin). This was to be a feudatory state of China under the government of the Mạc.

However, this arrangement did not last long. In 1592, Trịnh Tùng, leading the Royal (Trịnh) army, conquered nearly all of the Mạc territory and moved the Lê kings back to the original capital of Hanoi. The Mạc only held on to a tiny part of north Vietnam until 1667, when Trịnh Tạc conquered the last Mạc lands.

Cochinchina Kingdom of the Nguyen lords (1600–1774)

In 1600 after returning from Tonkin, lord Nguyễn Hoàng built his own government in the two southern provinces of Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam, today in central Vietnam. In 1623, lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên established a trading community at Saigon, then called Prey Nakor, with the consent of the king of Cambodia, Chey Chettha II. Over the next 50 years, Vietnamese control slowly expanded in this area but only gradually as the Nguyễn were fighting a protracted civil war with the Trịnh lords in the north.

With the end of the war with the Trịnh, the Nguyễn were able to devote more effort (and military force) to conquest of the south. First, the remaining Champa territories were taken; next, the areas around the Mekong river were placed under Vietnamese control. At least three wars were fought between the Nguyễn lords and the Cambodian kings in the period 1715 to 1770 with the Vietnamese gaining more territory with each war. The wars all involved the much more powerful Siamese kings who fought on behalf of their vassals, the Cambodians.

During the late 18th century emerged the Tây Sơn Rebellion, coming out from the Nguyễn domain. In 1774, the Trịnh army captured the capital Phú Xuân of the Nguyễn realm, whose leaders then had to flee to Lower Cochinchina. The three brothers of Tây Sơn, former peasants, however, soon succeeded in conquering first the lands of the Nguyễn and then the lands of the Trịnh, briefly unifying Vietnam.

Cochinchina Empire of the Nguyễn (1802–1862)

Final unification of Vietnam came under Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, a remarkably tenacious member of the Nguyễn noble family who fought for 25 years against the Tây Sơn and ultimately conquered the entire country in 1802. He ruled all of Vietnam under the name Gia Long. His son Minh Mạng reigned from 14 February 1820 until 20 January 1841 what was known to the British as Cochin China and to the Americans as hyphenated Cochin-China. In hopes of negotiating commercial treaties, the British in 1822 sent East India Company agent John Crawfurd,^[7] and the Americans in 1833 sent diplomatist Edmund Roberts,^[8] who returned in 1836.^[9] Neither envoy was fully cognizant of conditions within the country, and neither succeeded.

Gia Long's successors (see the Nguyễn dynasty for details) repelled the Siamese from Cambodia and even annexed Phnom Penh and surrounding territory in the war between 1831 and 1834, but were forced to relinquish these conquests in the war between 1841 and 1845.

Colonial Cochinchina (1862–1945)

Conquest and establishment

The French government of Napoleon III, with the help of Spanish troops arriving from the Philippines (then a Spanish colony), decided to take over the southern part of Vietnam. Their victory at the Battle of Ky Hoa in 1861 enabled them to go further. The Vietnamese government was forced to cede the provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường to France in June 1862. The three other provinces of Vĩnh Long, An Giang and Hà Tiên were annexed by France in 1867. These territories, which were then called Lower Cochinchina (Basse-Cochinchine in French), became the French colony of Cochinchina.

In 1887, the colony of French Cochinchina became part of the Union of French Indochina, while remaining separated from the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. So during the French colonial period, the label "Cochinchina" moved further south, and came to refer exclusively to the southern third of Vietnam. It is noteworthy that, however, Cochinchina used in Catholic ecclesiastical contexts until 1924 was still related to the older meaning of Đàng Trong. In 1924, the three Apostolic Vicariates of Northern, Eastern, and Western Cochinchina were renamed to Apostolic Vicariates of Huế, Qui Nhơn, and Saïgon.

Aborted reform and the 1940 insurrection

As a direct-rule French colony, Cochinchina was more sensitive than the governance of the protectorates to political shifts in Paris. In 1936 the formation in France of the Popular Front government led by Leon Blum was accompanied by vague promises of colonial reform. In Cochinchina the new governor-general of Indochina Jules Brévié,^[10] sought to defuse a tense and expectant political situation by amnestying political prisoners, and by easing restrictions on the press, political parties,^[10] and trade unions.^[11]

Saigon witnessed growing labour unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes.^[12] In April of that year the Communist Party of Ho Chi Minh (then in exile) and their Trotskyist left opposition ran a common slate for the municipal elections with both their respective leaders Nguyễn Văn Tạo and Tạ Thu Thâu winning seats. The exceptional anti-colonial unity of the left, however, was split by the lengthening shadow of the Moscow Trials and by growing protest over the failure of the Communist-supported Popular Front to deliver constitutional reform.^[13]. Colonial Minister Marius Moutet, a Socialist commented that he had sought "a wide consultation with all elements of the popular [will]," but with "Trotskyist-Communists intervening in the villages to menace and intimidate the peasant part of the population, taking all authority from the public officials," the necessary "formula" had not been found.^[14]

In April 1939 Cochinchina Council elections Tạ Thu Thâu led a "Workers' and Peasants' Slate" into victory over both the moderate Constitutionalists and the Communists' Democratic Front. Key to their success was popular opposition to the war taxes ("national defence levy") that the Communist Party, in the spirit of Franco-Soviet accord, had felt obliged to support.^[15] Brévié set the election results aside and wrote to Colonial Minister Georges Mandel: "the Trotskyists under the leadership of Ta Thu Thau, want to take advantage of a possible war in order to win total liberation." The Stalinists, on the other hand, are "following the position of the Communist Party in France" and "will thus be loyal if war breaks out."^[16]

With the Hitler-Stalin Pact of August 23, 1939, the local Communists were ordered by Moscow to return to direct confrontation with the French. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam",^[17] in November 1940 the Party in Cochinchina instigated a widespread insurrection. The revolt did not penetrate Saigon (an attempted uprising in the city was quelled in a day). In the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year.^[18]^[19]

French reconquest 1945-46

Cochinchina was occupied by Japan during World War II (1941–45). On September 2, 1945, in Hanoi Ho Chi Minh and his a new Front for the Independence of Vietnam, the Viet Minh, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Already on August 24 the Viet Minh had declared a provisional government (a Southern Administrative Committee) in Saigon. When, for the declared purpose of disarming the Japanese, the Viet-Minh accommodated the landing and strategic positioning of their wartime "democratic allies", the British, rival political groups turned out in force including the the syncretic Hoa Hao and Cao Dai sects. On September 7 and 8, 1945, in the delta city of Cần Thơ the Committee had to rely on what had been the Japanese-auxiliary, Jeunesse d'Avant-Garde/Thanh Nien Tienphong [Vanguard Youth]. They fired upon crowds demanding arms against the French.^[20]

In Saigon, the violence of a French restoration assisted by British and surrendered Japanese troops, triggered a general uprising on September 23. In the course of what became known as the [[War in Vietnam (1945-46)|Southern Resistance War (Nam Bộ kháng chiến)^[21] the Viet Minh defeated rival resistance forces but, by the end of 1945, had been pushed out of Saigon and major urban centres into the countryside.

After 1945, the status of Cochinchina was a subject of discord between France and Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh. In 1946, the French proclaimed Cochinchina an "autonomous republic", which was one of the causes of the First Indochina War. In 1948, Cochinchina was renamed as the Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam. It was merged the next year with the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam, and the State of Vietnam, with former emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, was then officially established.

After the First Indochina War, Cochinchina was merged with southern Annam to form South Vietnam, which was later established as the Republic of Vietnam in 1955 by President Ngo Dinh Diem.

References

^ Li, Tana (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. SEAP Publications. ISBN 9780877277224.
^ Michael Arthur Aung-Thwin; Kenneth R. Hall (13 May 2011). New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations. Routledge. pp. 158–. ISBN 978-1-136-81964-3.
^ Li, Tana Li (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: southern Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. SEAP Publications. p. 72. ISBN 0-87727-722-2.
^ Reid, Anthony. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce. Vol 2: Expansion and Crisis. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. p211n.
^ Yule, Sir Henry Yule, A. C. Burnell, William Crooke (1995). A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases: Hobson-Jobson. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 0-7007-0321-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Tana Li (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. SEAP Publications. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-0-87727-722-4.
^ Crawfurd, John (21 August 2006) [1830]. Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China. Vol. Volume 1 (2nd ed.). London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley. 475 pgs. OCLC 03452414. Retrieved 2 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
^ Roberts, Edmund (1837) [First published in 1837]. Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4 (Digital ed.). Harper & brothers (published 12 October 2007). 310 pages. Retrieved 25 April 2012. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
^ Ruschenberger, William Samuel Waithman (24 July 2007) [First published in 1837]. A Voyage Round the World: Including an Embassy to Muscat and Siam in 1835, 1836 and 1837. Harper & brothers. OCLC 12492287. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
^ ^a ^b Lockhart & Duiker 2010, p. 48.
^ Gunn 2014, p. 119.
^ Daniel Hemery Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, Appendix 24.
^ Frank N. Trager (ed.). Marxism in Southeast Asia; A Study of Four Countries. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1959. p. 142
^ Daniel Hemery Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, p. 388
^ Manfred McDowell, "Sky without Light: a Vietnamese Tragedy," New Politics, Vol XIII, No. 3, 2011, p. 1341 https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/ (accessed 10 October 2019).
^ Ngô Văn, In the Crossfire: Adventures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary. AK Press, Oakland CA, 2010, p. 16
^ Tyson, James L. (1974). "Labor Unions in South Vietnam". Asian Affairs. 2 (2): 70–82. doi:10.1080/00927678.1974.10587653. JSTOR 30171359.
^ Chonchirdsim, Sud (November 1997). "The Indochinese Communist Party and the Nam Ky Uprising in Cochin China November December 1940". South East Asia Research. 5 (3): 269–293. doi:10.1177/0967828X9700500304. JSTOR 23746947.
^ Paige, Jeffery M. (1970). "Inequality and Insurgency in Vietnam: A re-analysis" (PDF). cambridge.org. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
^ Marr, David G. Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945–1946). University of California Press. pp. 408–409. ISBN 9780520274150.
^ Concert to mark 66th anniversary of the Southern Resistance War Archived 2011-12-19 at the Wayback Machine

@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 [[File:French Indochina 1900-1945-fr.svg|thumb|200px|left|Map of French Indochina.<br>Cochinchina (light yellow) to the South.]]
-== Colonial Cochinchina (1862–1945) and aftermaths ==
+== Colonial Cochinchina (1862–1945)==
 {{main|French Cochinchina}}
 {{see also|Cochinchina campaign}}
+===Conquest and establishment===
 The French government of [[Napoleon III]], with the help of Spanish troops arriving from the [[Philippines]] (then a Spanish colony), decided to take over the southern part of Vietnam. Their victory at the [[Battle of Ky Hoa]] in 1861 enabled them to go further. The Vietnamese government was forced to cede the provinces of [[Biên Hòa Province|Biên Hòa]], [[Gia Định Province|Gia Định]] and [[Định Tường Province|Định Tường]] to France in June 1862. The three other provinces of Vĩnh Long, An Giang and Hà Tiên were annexed by France in 1867. [[Six Provinces of Southern Vietnam|These territories]], which were then called [[Southern Vietnam|Lower Cochinchina]] (''Basse-Cochinchine'' in French), became the [[French Cochinchina|French colony of Cochinchina]].
 In 1887, the colony of French Cochinchina became part of the [[French Indochina|Union of French Indochina]], while remaining separated from the protectorates of [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]]. So during the French colonial period, the label "Cochinchina" moved further south, and came to refer exclusively to the southern third of Vietnam. It is noteworthy that, however, Cochinchina used in Catholic ecclesiastical contexts until 1924 was still related to the older meaning of ''Đàng Trong''. In 1924, the three [[apostolic vicariate|Apostolic Vicariates]] of Northern, Eastern, and Western Cochinchina were renamed to Apostolic Vicariates of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Huế|Huế]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Qui Nhơn|Qui Nhơn]], and [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ho Chi Minh City|Saïgon]].
+===Aborted reform and the 1940 insurrection===
+As a direct-rule French colony, Cochinchina was more sensitive than the governance of the protectorates to political shifts in Paris. In 1936 the formation in France of the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] government led by [[Leon Blum]] was accompanied by vague promises of colonial reform. In Cochinchina the new governor-general of Indochina [[Jules Brévié]],{{sfn|Lockhart|Duiker|2010|p=48}} sought to defuse a tense and expectant political situation by amnestying political prisoners, and by easing restrictions on the press, political parties,{{sfn|Lockhart|Duiker|2010|p=48}} and trade unions.{{sfn|Gunn|2014|p=119}}
+Saigon witnessed growing labour unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes.<ref>Daniel Hemery ''Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine''. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, Appendix 24.</ref> In April of that year the [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Communist Party]] of [[Ho Chi Minh]] (then in exile) and their [[Trotskyism in Vietnam|Trotskyist left opposition]] ran a common slate for the municipal elections with both their respective leaders Nguyễn Văn Tạo and [[Tạ Thu Thâu]] winning seats. The exceptional anti-colonial unity of the left, however, was split by the lengthening shadow of the [[Moscow Trials]] and by growing protest over the failure of the Communist-supported Popular Front to deliver constitutional reform.<ref>Frank N. Trager (ed.). ''Marxism in Southeast Asia; A Study of Four Countries''. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1959. p. 142</ref>. Colonial Minister [[Marius Moutet]], a Socialist commented that he had sought "a wide consultation with all elements of the popular [will]," but with "Trotskyist-Communists intervening in the villages to menace and intimidate the peasant part of the population, taking all authority from the public officials," the necessary "formula" had not been found.<ref>Daniel Hemery ''Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine''. François Maspero, Paris. 1975, p. 388</ref>
+In April 1939 Cochinchina Council elections Tạ Thu Thâu led a "Workers' and Peasants' Slate" into victory over both the moderate Constitutionalists and the Communists' Democratic Front. Key to their success was popular opposition to the war taxes ("national defence levy") that the Communist Party, in the spirit of [[Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance|Franco-Soviet accord]], had felt obliged to support.<ref>Manfred McDowell, "Sky without Light: a Vietnamese Tragedy," New Politics, Vol XIII, No. 3, 2011, p. 1341 https://newpol.org/review/sky-without-light-vietnamese-tragedy/ (accessed 10 October 2019).</ref>  Brévié set the election results aside and wrote to Colonial Minister [[Georges Mandel]]: "the Trotskyists under the leadership of Ta Thu Thau, want to take advantage of a possible war in order to win total liberation." The Stalinists, on the other hand, are "following the position of the Communist Party in France" and "will thus be loyal if war breaks out."<ref>Ngô Văn, ''In the Crossfire: Adventures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary''. AK Press, Oakland CA, 2010, p. 16</ref>
+With the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|Hitler-Stalin Pact]] of August 23, 1939, the local Communists were ordered by Moscow to return to direct confrontation with the French. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam",<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Labor Unions in South Vietnam|journal = Asian Affairs|volume = 2|issue = 2|pages = 70–82|last=Tyson|first=James L.|date=1974|jstor = 30171359|doi = 10.1080/00927678.1974.10587653}}</ref> in November 1940 the Party in Cochinchina instigated a widespread [[1940 Cochinchina uprising|insurrection]]. The revolt did not penetrate Saigon (an attempted uprising in the city was quelled in a day).  In the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year.<ref>Chonchirdsim, Sud (November 1997). "The Indochinese Communist Party and the Nam Ky Uprising in Cochin China November December 1940". ''South East Asia Research''. 5 (3): 269–293. doi:10.1177/0967828X9700500304. JSTOR 23746947.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/231/2310402001.pdf|title=Inequality and Insurgency in Vietnam: A re-analysis|last=Paige|first=Jeffery M.|date=1970|website=cambridge.org|access-date=2018-11-09}}</ref>
+===French reconquest 1945-46===
 [[File:Flag of Republic of Cochinchina.svg|thumbnail|160px|<small>Flag of Cochinchina in 1946</small>]]
+Cochinchina was occupied by Japan during World War II (1941–45). On September 2, 1945, in Hanoi [[Ho Chi Minh]] and his a new Front for the Independence of Vietnam, the [[Viet Minh]], proclaimed the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]. Already on August 24 the Viet Minh had declared a provisional government (a Southern Administrative Committee) in Saigon. When, for the declared purpose of disarming the Japanese, the Viet-Minh accommodated the landing and strategic positioning of their wartime "democratic allies", the British, rival political groups turned out in force including the the syncretic [[Hoa Hao]] and [[Cao Dai]] sects. On September 7 and 8, 1945, in the delta city of [[Cần Thơ]] the Committee had to rely on what had been the Japanese-auxiliary, ''Jeunesse d'Avant-Garde/Thanh Nien Tienphong'' [Vanguard Youth]. They fired upon crowds demanding arms against the French.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marr |first1=David G. |title=Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945–1946) |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520274150 |pages=408-409}}</ref>
-Cochinchina was occupied by Japan during World War II (1941–45), but was restored to France afterwards. After 1945, the status of Cochinchina was a subject of discord between France and [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s [[Viet Minh]]. In 1946, the French proclaimed Cochinchina an "autonomous republic", which was one of the causes of the [[First Indochina War]]. In 1948, Cochinchina was renamed as the ''Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam''. It was merged the next year with the [[Provisional Central Government of Vietnam]], and the [[State of Vietnam]], with former emperor [[Bảo Đại]] as head of state, was then officially established.
+In Saigon, the violence of a French restoration assisted by British and surrendered Japanese troops, triggered a general uprising on September 23. In the course of what became known as the [[War in Vietnam (1945-46)|Southern Resistance War (Nam Bộ kháng chiến)<ref>[http://www.saigon-gpdaily.com.vn/Culture_Art/2011/9/96752/ Concert to mark 66th anniversary of the Southern Resistance War] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219121130/http://www.saigon-gpdaily.com.vn/Culture_Art/2011/9/96752/ |date=2011-12-19 }}</ref> the Viet Minh defeated rival resistance forces but, by the end of 1945, had been pushed out of Saigon and major urban centres into the countryside.
+After 1945, the status of Cochinchina was a subject of discord between France and [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s [[Viet Minh]]. In 1946, the French proclaimed Cochinchina an "autonomous republic", which was one of the causes of the [[First Indochina War]]. In 1948, Cochinchina was renamed as the ''Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam''. It was merged the next year with the [[Provisional Central Government of Vietnam]], and the [[State of Vietnam]], with former emperor [[Bảo Đại]] as head of state, was then officially established.
 After the [[First Indochina War]], Cochinchina was merged with southern Annam to form [[South Vietnam]], which was later established as the Republic of Vietnam in 1955 by President [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].