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'{{Short description|none}} <!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! --> [[File:Namur - L'Hôtel de Ville - Après août 2014 - 01.jpg|thumb|[[Namur]] City Hall, destroyed by the [[German invasion of Belgium (1914)|German invasion of Belgium]], 1914]] During [[World War I]] (1914–1918), [[Belligerent|belligerents]] from both the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] and [[Central Powers]] violated [[international criminal law]], committing numerous [[War crime|war crimes]]. This includes the use of [[Indiscriminate attack|indiscriminate violence]] and [[Massacre|massacres]] against civilians, [[torture]], [[Wartime sexual violence|sexual violence]], forced [[deportation]] and [[population transfer]], [[Death march|death marches]], the use of [[Chemical weapon|chemical weapons]] and the targeting of [[Health facility|medical facilities]]. == Austro-Hungarian war crimes == === Austro-Hungarian invasion and occupation of Serbia === {{Main|Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia}} ==== Collective punishment and massacres of Serbs by Austria-Hungary ==== During the [[Serbian campaign (1914)|first invasion of Serbia]] in 1914, [[Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces|Austro-Hungarian forces]] occupied parts of the country for 13 days. Their war aims were not only to eliminate [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] as a threat, but also to [[Collective punishment|punish]] her for fuelling [[Yugoslavism|South Slav irredentism]] in the empire. The occupation turned into a [[war of annihilation]], accompanied by massacres of civilians and the taking of hostages.{{sfn|Jeřábek|1991|p=25}} [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] troops committed a number of war crimes against the [[Serbs]], especially in the area of [[Mačva District|Mačva]], where according to historian [[Geoffrey Wawro]], the Austro-Hungarian army subjected the civilian population to a wave of atrocities.{{sfn|Wawro|2014|p=195}} During this short occupation, between 3,500 and 4,000 Serb civilians were killed in executions and acts of random violence by marauding troops.{{sfn|Kramer|2008|p=140}}[[File:ShabatzBombardeadaOctubreDe1914--reportuponatroci00reis.jpg|thumb|[[Šabac]], pictured in August 1914, was the first target of the [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia#Punitive expedition and first occupation|Austro-Hungarian punitive expedition]] and the site of many atrocities committed against the local population]][[Mass killing|Mass killings]] took place in numerous towns in northern Serbia. On 17 August 1914, in [[Šabac]], 120 residents—mostly women, children and old men—were shot and buried in a churchyard by Austro-Hungarian troops on the orders of ''[[Lieutenant field marshal|Feldmarschall-Leutnant]]'' Kasimir von Lütgendorf.<ref>{{cite news | last=Holzer | first=Anton | title=Geschichte | newspaper=Der Spiegel | date=2008-10-06 | url=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/erster-weltkrieg-a-947918.html | language=de}}</ref> The remaining residents were beaten to death, [[Hanging|hanged]], [[Stabbing|stabbed]], [[Mutilation|mutilated]] or [[Death by burning|burned alive]].{{sfn|Hastings|2013|p=226}} A pit was later discovered in the village of [[Lešnica, Serbia|Lešnica]] containing 109 dead peasants who were "bound together with a rope and encircled by wire"; they had been shot and immediately buried, even with some still alive.{{sfn|Reiss|2019|p=34}} A claim from a local spy that "traitors" were hiding in a certain house was enough to sentence the whole family to death by hanging. Priests were often hanged, under the accusation of spreading the spirit of treason among the people. Victims were usually hanged on the main squares of villages and towns, in full view of the general population. The lifeless bodies were left to hang by the noose for several days as an act of intimidation.{{sfn|Holzer|2014|p=12}}{{sfn|Holzer|2014|p=241}} Austria's propaganda machinery spread [[anti-Serb sentiment]] with the slogan "''Serbien muss sterbien''" (Serbia must die).<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Deutsche Welle |title=Austrougarski zločini u Srbiji {{!}} DW {{!}} 12 October 2014 |url=https://www.dw.com/sr/austrougarski-zlo%C4%8Dini-u-srbiji/a-17989134 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214023923/https://www.dw.com/sr/austrougarski-zlo%C4%8Dini-u-srbiji/a-17989134 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=DW.COM |language=sr-RS}}</ref> During the war, Austro-Hungarian officers in Serbia ordered troops to "exterminate and burn everything that is Serbian", and hangings and [[Mass shooting|mass shootings]] were everyday occurrences.{{sfn|DiNardo|2015|p=68}} [[Austrians|Austrian]] historian Anton Holzer wrote that the [[Austro-Hungarian army]] carried out "countless and systematic massacres…against the Serbian population. The soldiers invaded villages and rounded up unarmed men, women and children. They were either shot dead, bayoneted to death or hanged. The victims were locked into barns and burned alive. Women were sent up to the front lines and mass-raped. The inhabitants of whole villages were taken as [[Hostage|hostages]], humiliated and tortured."<ref>{{cite news |date=7 April 2014 |title=A History of the First World War in 100 Moments: Austro-Hungarian army |language=en |website=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/world-history/history-of-the-first-world-war-in-100-moments/a-history-of-the-first-world-war-in-100-moments-the-execution-of-civilians-in-serbia-9244674.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217122116/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/world-history/history-of-the-first-world-war-in-100-moments/a-history-of-the-first-world-war-in-100-moments-the-execution-of-civilians-in-serbia-9244674.html |archive-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> Multiple source state that 30,000 Serbs, mostly [[Civilian|civilians]], were executed by Austro-Hungarian forces by the end of 1914.<ref name=":0" /> ==== Forced displacement and starvation of Serbs ==== [[File:Hromadná_poprava_srbského_obyvatelstva.jpg|thumb|Austro-Hungarian soldiers executing men and women in Serbia, 1916<ref>{{cite book |last1=Honzík |first1=Miroslav |title=1914/1918, Léta zkázy a naděje |last2=Honzíková |first2=Hana |publisher=Panorama |year=1984 |location=Czech Republic}}</ref>]]After being occupied completely in early 1916, both Austria-Hungary and [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] announced that Serbia had ceased to exist as a [[political entity]], and that its inhabitants could therefore not invoke the international [[Law of war|rules of war]] dictating the treatment of civilians as defined by the [[Geneva Conventions]] and the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Hague Conventions]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Prisoners of War in Bulgaria during the First World War| website=Faculty of History, Cambridge University| date=2017-06-06 | url=https://silo.tips/download/prisoners-of-war-in-bulgaria-during-the-first-world-war }}</ref> The [[Military General Governorate of Serbia]] (MGG/S), as well as the [[Hofkriegsrat|High Command in Vienna]], considered sending civilian prisoners to [[Internment|internment camps]].{{sfn|Stojančević|1988|p=34}} During the occupation, between 150,000 and 200,000 men, women and children were deported to various camps in Austria-Hungary;{{sfn|Luthar|2016|p=76}} it has been estimated they represented slightly more than 10 per cent of the Serb population.{{sfn|Winter|2014|p=257}} Since Serbia did not have its own [[International Committee of the Red Cross|Red Cross]], Serbian prisoners did not have access to the aid the Red Cross provided to other [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] prisoners.{{sfn|DiNardo|2015|p=122}} Moreover, Serbian prisoners were not considered "enemy aliens" but "internal enemies" by Austria-Hungary's [[Minister of War (Austria-Hungary)|Ministry of War]]. By defining them as "terrorists" or "insurgents", the Austro-Hungarian authorities were not obliged to disclose the number of captives they held, and which camps they were being held in, to Red Cross societies.{{sfn|Stibbe|2019|p=111}} Serbs also suffered from [[famine]]; General [[Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf]] gave orders for Serbia's resources be "squeezed dry" regardless of the consequences for the population.{{sfn|Calic|Geyer|2019|p=157}} [[Looting]] by occupying soldiers,{{sfn|Calic|Geyer|2019|p=166}} combined with the food [[International trade|exporting]] policies of Austria and [[German Empire|Germany]],{{sfn|Herwig|2014|p=239}} caused mass starvation, leading to the deaths of 8,000 Serbians during the winter of 1916.{{sfn|Calic|Geyer|2019|p=157}} According to a Red Cross report dated 1 February 1918, by the end of 1917, there were 206,500 prisoners of war and internees from Serbia in Austro-Hungarian and German camps. According to the historian Alan Kramer, the Serbians in Austro-Hungarian captivity received the worst treatment of all the prisoners, and at least 30,000–40,000 had died of starvation by January 1918.{{sfn|Kramer|2008|p=67}} == British and Commonwealth war crimes == {{Main|British war crimes}} === ''Baralong'' incidents === {{Main|Baralong incidents}} [[File:HMS_Baralong.jpg|thumb|HMS ''Baralong'']] On 19 August 1915, the German submarine [[SM U-27 (Germany)|U-''27'']] was sunk by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Q-ship]] {{HMS|Baralong}}. All German survivors were [[Summary execution|summarily executed]] by ''Baralong''{{'}}s crew on the orders of Lieutenant [[Godfrey Herbert]], the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the ''Nicosia'', a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was stopped by ''U-27'' just minutes before the incident.<ref>Halpern, Paul G. (1994). ''A Naval History of World War I''. Routledge, p. 301; {{ISBN|978-1-85728-498-0}}</ref> On 24 September, ''Baralong'' destroyed [[SM U-41 (Germany)|U-''41'']], which was in the process of sinking the cargo ship ''Urbino''. According to a survivor from the submarine, ''Baralong'' continued to fly the US flag after firing on ''U-41'' and then rammed the lifeboat carrying the German survivors, sinking it.<ref>Hadley, Michael L. (1995). ''Count Not the Dead: The Popular Image of the German Submarine''. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, p. 36; {{ISBN|978-0-7735-1282-5}}.</ref> === Blockade of Germany === {{Main|Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)}}{{See also|Turnip Winter}} After the war, the [[German Empire|German government]] claimed that approximately 763,000 German civilians died from [[starvation]] and disease during the war because of the [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] [[blockade]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The blockade of Germany |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/blockade.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040722073135/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/blockade.htm |archive-date=22 July 2004 |access-date=11 November 2018 |website=nationalarchives.gov.uk |publisher=The National Archives}}</ref> An academic study done in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000.<ref name="university2">Grebler, Leo (1940). ''The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria–Hungary''. Yale University Press. p. 78</ref> Germany protested that the Allies had used starvation as a weapon of war.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cox |first=Mary Elisabeth |date=21 September 2014 |title=Hunger games: or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition, and Allied food aid subsequently saved them. Abstract. |journal=The Economic History Review |language=en |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=600–631 |doi=10.1111/ehr.12070 |issn=0013-0117 |s2cid=142354720}}</ref> Sally Marks argued that the German accounts of a hunger blockade are a "myth", as Germany did not face the starvation level of [[Belgium]] and the regions of [[History of Poland during World War I|Poland]] and northern [[French Third Republic|France]] that it occupied.{{sfn|Marks|2013}} According to the [[British people|British]] judge and legal philosopher [[Patrick Devlin, Baron Devlin|Patrick Devlin]], "The War Orders given by the Admiralty on 26 August [1914] were clear enough. All food consigned to Germany through neutral ports was to be captured and all food consigned to Rotterdam was to be presumed consigned to Germany." According to Devlin, this was a serious breach of international law, equivalent to German minelaying.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Devlin |first1=Patrick |url=https://archive.org/details/tooproudtofightw00devl |title=Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality |date=1975 |publisher=New York: Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-215807-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/tooproudtofightw00devl/page/193 193–195] |url-access=registration}}</ref> [[File:DisturbiosPorHambreEnBerlín.png|thumb|Looted shops caused by [[Food riot|food riots]] in [[Berlin]], 1918]] The blockade was maintained for eight months after the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|armistice in November 1918]], into the following year of 1919. Foodstuffs imports into Germany continued to be controlled by the Allies until German authorities signed the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in June 1919.{{sfn|Mowat|1968|p=213}} In March 1919, [[Winston Churchill]] informed the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], that the ongoing blockade was a success and "Germany is very near starvation."{{sfn|Fuller|1993}} From January 1919 to March 1919, Germany refused to agree to Allied demands that it surrender its merchant ships to Allied ports to transport food supplies. Some Germans considered the armistice to be a temporary cessation of the war and knew, if fighting broke out again, their ships would be seized.{{sfn|Marks|2013|p=650}} Over the winter of 1919, the situation became desperate and Germany finally agreed to surrender its fleet in March. The Allies then allowed for the import of 270,000 tons of foodstuffs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lebensmittelabkommen in Brüssel |trans-title=Food agreement in Brussels |url=https://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/1000/sch/sch1p/kap1_2/kap2_17/para3_1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711192707/http://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/1000/sch/sch1p/kap1_2/kap2_17/para3_1.html |archive-date=11 July 2016 |publisher=[[German Federal Archives|Das Bundesarchiv]] |language=de}}</ref> Both German and non-German observers have argued that these were the most devastating months of the blockade for German civilians,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The politics of hunger: the allied blockade of Germany, 1915–1919 |last = Paul |first = C. |year = 1985 |publisher = Ohio University Press |location = Athens, Ohio |page = 145 |isbn = 978-0-8214-0831-5}}</ref> though disagreement persists as to the extent and who is truly at fault.{{sfn|Marks|2013|p=651}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Verhandlung der verfassungsgebenden Nationalversammlung: Stenographische Berichte und Drucksachen |publisher=German National Assembly |year=1919 |volume=24 |pages=631–635 |language=de |trans-title=Proceedings of the National Constituent Assembly: Stenographic reports and printed matter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = Die Finanzierung des Lebensmittels |trans-title = Paying for food imports |newspaper = Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung |language = de |date = 2 February 1919}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Hungerblockade und Heimatfront: Die kommunale Lebensmittelversorgung in Westfalen während des Ersten Weltkrieges | trans-title = The hunger blockade and the home front: communal food supply in Westphalia during World War&nbsp;I | last = Roerkohl | first = Anne | year = 1991 | publisher = Franz Steiner | location = Stuttgart | language = de | page = 348 | isbn = 978-351505661-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Die Wohlfahrtsstadt: Kommunale Ernährungs-, Fürsorge, und Wohnungspolitik am Beispiel Münchens 1910–1933 | last = Rudloff | first = Wilfried | year = 1998 | publisher = Vandenhooeck & Ruprecht | location = Göttingen | language = de | series = Schriftenreihe der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd. 63 | page = 184 | isbn = 3-525-36056-8}}</ref> According to [[Max Rubner]], 100,000 German civilians died due to the continued blockade after the armistice.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Von der Blockde und Aehlichen |last = Rubner |first = Max |journal = [[Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift]] |location = Berlin |date = 10 April 1919 |volume = 45 |issue = 15 |page = 15 |doi = 10.1055/s-0028-1137673 |s2cid = 72845627}}</ref> In the UK, [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] member and anti-war activist [[Robert Smillie]] issued a statement in June 1919 condemning continuation of the blockade, claiming 100,000 German civilians had died as a result.<ref>''Common Sense'' (London) 5 July 1919.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Blockade of Germany after the Armistice |last = Bane |first = S.L. |year = 1942 |publisher = Stanford University Press |page = 791}}</ref> === Internment of Ukrainian Canadians === {{Excerpt|Ukrainian Canadian internment}} === Surafend massacre === {{Excerpt|Surafend massacre}} == Bulgarian war crimes == {{See also|1922 Bulgarian war criminal prosecution referendum}} === Bulgarian massacres of Serbs === {{Main|Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I)}} {{Further|Štip massacre|Surdulica massacre}}[[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] Tsar [[Ferdinand I of Bulgaria|Ferdinand]] declared on the eve of war: "the purpose of my life is the destruction of Serbia".{{sfn|Glenny|2012|p=333}} Many [[Bulgarian Armed Forces|Bulgarian troops]] were sidelined from front line duty to take part in the occupation of Serbia, past animosities led to brutality,{{sfn|Mitrović|2007|p=126}} the local population was left a choice between [[Bulgarisation]] or being subject to violence, large scale [[Deportation|deportations]] and the treatment of the residents of the occupation zones came close to genocidal actions.{{sfn|Mojzes|2011|p=41}} [[File:Surdulica_massacre_victims4.jpg|thumb|Exhumation of Serbs executed by Bulgarian occupiers in [[Surdulica]] between 1916 and 1918.]] The {{Lang|fr|Documents relatifs aux violations des Conventions de La Haye et du Droit international, commis de 1915–1918 par les Bulgares en Serbie occupée}}, a report covering alleged atrocities committed in Serbia, published after the war, stated that ‘anyone unwilling to submit him or herself to the occupiers and become Bulgarian was tortured, [[Wartime sexual violence|raped]], [[Internment|interned]], and killed in particularly gruesome manners, some of which recorded photographically'.{{sfn|Mojzes|2011|p=41-42}} Bulgarian units that occupied Serbian territories showed extreme brutality, systematically expelling the non-Bulgarian population in the regions they occupied, they arrested the population and set the rebel villages on fire.{{sfn|Batakovic|2005|p=32}} In addition to the numerous cases of rape, Bulgarian forces encouraged the mixed marriage of Serbian women with Bulgarian men and espoused the view that children born to such marriages should be raised as Bulgarians.{{sfn|Le Moal|2008|p=118}} Middle-class Serbian functionaries were also suppressed: teachers, religious workers, functionaries, and intellectuals were executed by the Bulgarian soldiers who were following strict instructions to treat civilians the same way they treated soldiers.{{sfn|Le Moal|2008|p=119}} Additionally, there were regular bombardments of Serbian territories by the aviation and Bulgarian artillery which were operating on the Balkan front around the end of 1916.{{sfn|Le Moal|2008|p=121}} At the same time, there was a prohibition of Serbian culture; Bulgarians systematically looted Serbian monasteries and the toponymy of villages was changed to Bulgarian.{{sfn|Le Moal|2008|p=121}} In addition to those sent to concentration camps, some 30,000 Serbs were sent to Austrian camps or used as [[forced labour]]. Factories were plundered of their machinery and a devastating typhus epidemic stalked the land. Thousands died in desperate uprisings, and in some cases, Bulgarian policy was so rigid that it even provoked mutinies among its own soldiers. The Bulgarian soldiers are depicted as simply living off the land without paying any redistribution and also robbing and hitting civilians, whereas the peasants had to work for the occupational authorities without getting any pay, this sometimes included working on defensive positions and carrying ammunition for the Bulgarians which violated the Hague conventions.{{sfn|Reiss|2018|p=17}} In ex-Serb Macedonia, for the first time in history, gas chambers were used for the purpose of mass executions, exhaust pipes of trucks were attached to sealed sheds by Bulgarian soldiers where they herded the Serbs whom they wished to eliminate.{{sfn|Murray|1999|p=13}} == German war crimes == {{Main|German war crimes}} {{Further|Schrecklichkeit|Bandenbekämpfung|Leipzig war crimes trials}}{{See also|List of German-sponsored acts of terrorism during World War I}} ===Bombardment of English coastal towns=== {{Main|Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby}} On 16 December 1914, the [[Imperial German Navy]] launched a raid on the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] seaport towns of [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]], [[Hartlepool]], [[West Hartlepool]], and [[Whitby]]. The attack resulted in 137 fatalities and 592 casualties. The raid was in violation of the ninth section of the 1907 Hague Convention which prohibited naval bombardments of undefended towns without warning,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/horrorsatrocitie00mars |page=[https://archive.org/details/horrorsatrocitie00mars/page/240 240] |quote=German Navy December 1914 Hague Convention bombardment. |title=Horrors and atrocities of the great war: Including the tragic destruction of the Lusitania: A new kind of warfare: Comprising the desolation of Belgium: The sacking of Louvain: The shelling of defenseless cities: The wanton destruction of cathedrals and works of art: The horrors of bomb dropping: Vividly portraying the grim awfulness of this greatest of all wars fought on land and sea: In the air and under the waves: Leaving in its wake a dreadful trail of famine and pestilence |publisher=G. F. Lasher |first=Logan |last=Marshall |year=1915 |access-date=5 July 2013}}</ref> because only Hartlepool was protected by [[Coastal artillery|shore batteries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chuter|first=David|title=War Crimes: Confronting Atrocity in the Modern World|publisher=Lynne Rienner Pub|year=2003|location=London|page=300|isbn=1-58826-209-X}}</ref> Germany was a signatory of the 1907 Hague Convention.<ref>{{cite book|last=Willmore|first=John|title=The great crime and its moral|publisher=Doran|year=1918|location=New York|page=340|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027858426}}</ref> === Indiscriminate attacks in German-occupied territory === In response to actions by [[Russians|Russian]] prisoners (many of whom tried to sabotage German plans and kill German soldiers), Germany resorted to harsh pacification measures and terror actions, including brutal reprisals against civilians.{{sfn|Blood|2006|pp=22–23}} Before long, similar practices were instituted throughout the Eastern and Western areas of German occupied territory.{{sfn|Blood|2006|pp=24–25}} ==== Destruction of Kalisz, Poland ==== {{Excerpt|Destruction of Kalisz|paragraphs=2|files=0}} ==== Rape of Belgium ==== {{Main|German occupation of Belgium during World War I|Rape of Belgium}} {{Further-text|[[Sack of Dinant]]|[[Sack of Louvain]]|[[Massacre of Tamines]]}} [[File:Fusillade du mur Bourdon (23 août 1914).jpg|thumb|Victims of the 1914 [[Sack of Dinant]]]]The [[Imperial German Army]] ignored many of the commonly-understood European conventions of war when between August and October 1914, some 6,500 [[French people|French]] and [[Belgians|Belgian]] citizens were murdered,{{sfn|Blood|2006|p=20}}{{efn|The German troops were merciless in spite of the international efforts highlighted by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which included injunctions codifying and restraining "both the conduct of irregular warfare and the measures to which an occupying power should be entitled in order to combat it".{{sfn|Shepherd|Pattinson|2010|p=15}}}} often in near-random, large-scale shootings ordered by junior German officers. On some occasions, attacks against German infantry positions and patrols that may have actually been attributable to "friendly fire" were blamed on ''[[francs-tireurs]]'' ([[Guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]]), who were regarded as bandits and outside the rules of war, eliciting ruthless measures by German forces against the civilians and villages suspected of harboring them. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential ''francs-tireurs'', with German soldiers taking, and sometimes killing, hostages from among the civilian population.{{sfn|Leonhard|2018|p=151}}{{sfn|Horne|Kramer|2001|loc=ch 1–2, esp. p. 76}} The Germans treated any resistance in [[Belgium in World War I|Belgium]]—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. The German Army destroyed 15,000–20,000 buildings—most infamously the [[Academic libraries in Leuven|university library]] at [[Leuven]]—and generated a [[Belgian refugees#First World War|wave of refugees]], numbering at over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents.{{sfn|Horne|Kramer|2001|loc=ch 1–2, esp. p. 76}} In destroying the Leuven library, Germany violated it's obligation, as a signatory to the 1907 Hague Convention, that "in sieges and bombardment, all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes"; the [[Treaty of Versailles]], one of the treaties that ended the war, included a clause to strengthen the protection of [[cultural property]].{{Sfn|Ovenden|2020|p=110}} British propaganda dramatising the [[Rape of Belgium]] attracted much attention in the [[United States in World War I|United States]], while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like those in France in 1870.<ref>The claim of franc-tireurs in Belgium has been rejected: {{harvnb|Horne|Kramer|2001|loc=ch 3–4}}</ref> The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.{{sfn|Horne|Kramer|2001|loc=ch 5–8}}{{sfn|Keegan|1998|pp=82–83}} === German complicity in the Armenian genocide === {{Excerpt|Germany and the Armenian genocide|paragraphs=1|files=0}} ===Unrestricted submarine warfare=== {{Main|U-boat Campaign (World War I)}} [[Unrestricted submarine warfare]] was instituted in 1915 in response to the [[Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)|British naval blockade of Germany]]. Germany intended to starve Britain as well, but unlike the British, [[prize rules]], which were codified under the 1907 Hague Convention—such as those that required [[commerce raider]]s to warn their targets and allow time for the crew to board lifeboats—were disregarded and [[Merchant vessel|commercial vessel]]s were sunk regardless of nationality, cargo, or destination. Following the sinking of the {{RMS|Lusitania}} on 7 May 1915 and subsequent public outcry in various neutral countries, including the [[United States]], the practice was withdrawn. However, Germany resumed the practice on 1 February 1917 and declared that all merchant ships regardless of nationalities would be sunk without warning. This outraged the U.S. public, prompting the U.S. to break diplomatic relations with Germany two days later, and, along with the [[Zimmermann Telegram]], led the [[American entry into World War I|U.S. entry into the war]] two months later on the side of the [[Allies of World War 1|Allied Powers]]. Around 15,000 British civilian sailors were killed in the submarine campaign, with a smaller number from other states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/a-short-history-of-the-merchant-navy|title=A short history of the merchant navy|website = Imperial War Museum}}</ref> While the German attempt at a blockade was much less successful in terms of inflicting civilian suffering, during the war and prior to World War II, Germany's actions were widely considered to be a greater war crime,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Modern Developments of the Law of Prize|author1=F. Cyril James|journal=University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register|volume=75| number= 6 |year=1927 |page=505-526|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3307534?seq=6}}</ref> and are technically still illegal today.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Law of Submarine Warfare Today|author = Jon L. Jacobson |journal = International Law Studies| volume = 64|pages=222-224}}</ref> == Japanese war crimes == {{Main|Japanese war crimes}} {{Further|Siege of Tsingtao|Japan during World War I}} During the march towards the German port in [[Qingdao|Tsingtao]] and the [[Siege of Tsingtao|siege that followed]], [[Imperial Japanese Armed Forces|Japanese forces]] killed 98 [[Chinese people|Chinese]] civilians and wounded 30; there were also countless incidents of rape against Chinese women committed by [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] soldiers.<ref>Tang, Chi-hua: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_losses_and_reparations_china War Losses and Reparations (China)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]</ref> == Ottoman war crimes == {{Further|Prosecution of Ottoman war criminals after World War I|Istanbul trials of 1919–1920|Malta exiles}}{{See also|Turkish war crimes}} === Genocide and ethnic cleansing === {{Main|Armenian genocide|Sayfo|Greek genocide}} {{See also|Late Ottoman genocides|Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)|Armenian genocide denial}} [[File:Morgenthau336.jpg|thumb|Armenians killed during the Armenian genocide. Image taken from ''Ambassador Morgenthau's Story'', written by [[Henry Morgenthau Sr.]] and published in 1918.<ref>{{cite book |author=Henry Morgenthau |title=Ambassador Mogenthau's story |publisher=Brigham Young University |year=1918 |chapter=XXV: Talaat Tells Why He "Deports" the Armenians |access-date=6 June 2012 |chapter-url=http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/morgenthau/Morgen25.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612014938/http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/morgenthau/Morgen25.htm |archive-date=12 June 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] In the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|final years]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s existence, the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP) [[Armenian genocide|committed a genocide]] against the [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|empire's Armenian population]].<ref name="IAGSletter2">{{cite web |author=International Association of Genocide Scholars |author-link=International Association of Genocide Scholars |date=13 June 2005 |title=Open Letter to the Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan |url=http://www.genocidewatch.org/TurkishPMIAGSOpenLetterreArmenia6-13-05.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006024502/http://www.genocidewatch.org/TurkishPMIAGSOpenLetterreArmenia6-13-05.htm |archive-date=6 October 2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Göçek|2015|p=1}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=374–375}} The Ottomans carried out organised, systematic massacres and deportations of Armenians throughout the war, and they portrayed acts of resistance by Armenians as rebellions in an attempt to justify their extermination campaign.<ref name="leverkun2">{{cite book |last=Vartparonian |first=Paul Leverkuehn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hItAQAAIAAJ |title=A German officer during the Armenian genocide: a biography of Max von Scheubner-Richter |author2=Kaiser |publisher=Taderon Press for the Gomidas Institute |others=translated by Alasdair Lean; with a preface by Jorge and a historical introduction by Hilmar |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-903656-81-5 |location=London |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326152834/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hItAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=26 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the [[Russian Armed Forces|Russian forces]], and the [[Government of the late Ottoman Empire|Ottoman government]] used this as a pretext to issue the [[Temporary Law of Deportation|Tehcir Law]] (Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally [[Death march|marched to death]], and a large number of them were attacked by Ottoman brigands.{{sfn|Ferguson|2006|p=177}} While the exact number of deaths is unknown, the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]] estimates that 1.5&nbsp;million Armenians were killed.<ref name="IAGSletter2" /><ref>{{cite web |title=International Association of Genocide Scholars |url=http://www.genocidescholars.org/sites/default/files/document%09%5Bcurrent-page%3A1%5D/documents/US%20Congress_%20Armenian%20Resolution.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010071506/http://www.genocidescholars.org/sites/default/files/document%09%5Bcurrent-page%3A1%5D/documents/US%20Congress_%20Armenian%20Resolution.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=12 March 2013}}</ref> The [[government of Turkey]] has consistently [[Armenian genocide denial|denied the genocide]], arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War{{nbsp}}I; these claims are rejected by most historians.{{sfn|Fromkin|1989|pp=212–215}} Other ethnic groups were also attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Greeks]], and some scholars consider those events different parts of the [[Late Ottoman genocides|same policy of extermination]].<ref>{{cite web |author=International Association of Genocide Scholars |title=Resolution on genocides committed by the Ottoman empire |url=http://www.genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422005726/http://genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|pp=7–14}} [[File:Pontic genocide memorial, Argos.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Greece]] for the Greek genocide and [[the Holocaust]].]] [[Greek genocide|Genocidal policies]] against [[Ottoman Greeks]] were already put in place by the CUP prior to World War I,{{sfn|Akçam|2012|pp=68 f}} and continued after the war began. According to a newspaper of the time, in November 1914, Turkish troops destroyed Christian properties and killed several Christians at [[Trabzon]].<ref>{{cite news |date=25 November 1914 |title=Turkey. Massacre of Christians at Trebizond |page=4 |newspaper=[[Maryborough Chronicle, Wide Bay and Burnett Advertiser]] |issue=12,956 |location=Queensland, Australia |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article151010960 |access-date=15 February 2021 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> The CUP officially sanctioned the forceful migration of Greeks into the [[Anatolia|Anatolian hinterland]].{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=97}} In the fall of 1916, with [[Allies of World War I|Allied forces]] advancing towards Anatolia, and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] being expected to [[Greece during World War I|enter the war]] on the side of the Allies, preparations were made for the deportation of Greeks living in border areas.{{sfn|Akçam|2012|pp=109 f}} As such, in March 1917 the population of [[Ayvalık]], a town of c. 30,000 inhabitants on the Aegean coast, was [[Evacuation of Ayvalik|forcibly deported]] to the interior of Anatolia under the orders of German General [[Otto Liman von Sanders|Liman von Sanders]]. The operation included death marches, looting, torture and massacres against the civilian population.{{sfn|Akçam|2004|p=146}}{{sfn|Rendel|1922}} between 1914 and 1922, and for the whole of Anatolia, there are academic estimates of a death toll ranging from 300,000 to 750,000.{{Sfn|Jones|2010|pp=150–151; 166|ps=: "By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia&nbsp;... The major populations of 'Anatolian Greeks' include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus&nbsp;... A 'Christian genocide' framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups targeted&nbsp;... of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor – Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians – approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000."}}{{sfn|Hatzidimitriou|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Valavanis|1925|p=24}} [[File:Jilu Assyrian orphans breaking stones for the Persian Road.jpg|thumb|[[Orphan|Orphaned]] Assyrian refugees in [[Qajar Iran]], 1918]] Happening contemporaneously was the [[Sayfo]], a genocide of Assyrian people. In mid-1915, interior minister [[Talaat Pasha]] ordered for an [[ethnic cleansing]] campaign against the Assyrians of [[Hakkari (historical region)|Hakkari]],{{sfn|Gaunt|2015|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|p=142}} and Ottoman forces proceeded to loot Assyrian villages there and destroy [[Cultural artifact|cultural artifacts]],{{sfn|Hellot-Bellier|2018|p=129}}{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|p=312}} [[No quarter|taking no prisoners]] as they did so.{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|p=312}} Many Assyrians fled to [[Qajar Iran|Iran]],{{sfn|Hellot-Bellier|2018|pp=117, 125}} but after the Ottomans began [[Persian campaign (World War I)|occupying]] parts of Iran, [[Djevdet Bey]] ordered massacres of [[Christians|Christian]] civilians to prevent them from joining to fight for [[Russian Empire|Russia]].{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|p=106}} Between February and May (when the Ottoman forces pulled out), there was a campaign of mass execution, looting, kidnapping, and extortion against Christians in Urmia,{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|p=110}}{{sfn|Hellot-Bellier|2018|pp=121–122}} and Assyrian women were targeted for kidnapping and rape;{{sfn|Naby|2017|p=167}}{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=227}} seventy villages were destroyed.{{sfn|Hofmann|2018|p=30}} [[Halil Kut]] and Djevdet Bey ordered the murder of Armenian and Syriac soldiers serving in the Ottoman army, and several hundred were killed.{{sfn|Gaunt|2006|pp=108–109}}{{sfn|Gaunt|2011|p=255}} By 1923, the genocide killed an estimated 250,000 to 275,000 Assyrian Christians (about half of the population).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitehorn |first1=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vrnCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |title=The Armenian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide: The Essential Reference Guide |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-688-3 |pages=83, 218 |access-date=11 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801142141/https://books.google.com/books?id=0vrnCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Gaunt|2015|pp=88, 96}} A policy of [[Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)|deporting]] [[Ottoman Kurds]] from their [[Lands inhabited by Indigenous peoples|indigenous lands]] also began during World War I, under the orders of [[Talaat Pasha]].{{sfn|Üngör|2011|pp=110–111}} Although many Kurds were loyal to the empire (with some even supporting the persecution of [[Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|Christian minorities]] by the CUP), Turkish authorities nevertheless feared the possibility that they would collaborate with Armenians and [[Russians]] to establish their own [[Kurdish nationalism|Kurdish state]].{{sfn|Üngör|2011|p=108}} In 1916, roughly 300,000 Kurds were deported from [[Bitlis]], [[Erzurum]], [[Palu, Turkey|Palu]] and [[Muş]] to [[Konya]] and [[Gaziantep]] during the winter, and most died from [[famine]].{{sfn|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|pp=7–8}} === Ottoman mistreatment of prisoners of war === {{Excerpt|Prisoners of war in World War I|POWs in the Ottoman Empire|files=0}} == Russian war crimes == {{Main|Russian war crimes}}{{See also|Central Asian revolt of 1916}} === Pogroms === {{Further|Pogroms in the Russian Empire|Pogroms during the Russian Civil War}} During the war, [[Russian Empire|Russian authorities]] launched [[Pogrom|pogroms]] against [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine, and the Soviet Union|German populations in Russian cities]], massacred [[Jews]] in their towns and villages, and deported 500,000 Jews and 250,000 Germans into the Russian interior. On 11 June 1915, a pogrom began against Germans in [[Petrograd]], with over 500 factories, stores and offices looted and mob violence unleashed against Germans. After the [[Great Retreat (Russia)|Great Retreat]] of the [[Imperial Russian Army|Russian army]], the [[Chief of the General Staff (Russia)|Chief of the General Staff]] [[Nikolai Yanushkevich]], with the full support of the [[Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)|Grand Duke Nicholas]], ordered the army to devastate the border territories and expel the "enemy" nations within.{{sfn|Baberowski|Doering-Manteuffel|2009|pp=202-203}}{{sfn|McMeekin|2017|p=68}} Many pogroms also accompanied the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]]. 50,000–250,000 civilian Jews were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the [[Pale of Settlement]] in present-day [[Ukraine]]).<ref>Klier, J.D., ''[https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Pogroms Pogroms]'', [[The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe]]</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vital |first=David |title=A People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789-1939 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XB1d1JhKoVUC&dq=pogroms+Jews+1919+russian+civil+war&pg=PA715|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=715–727 |isbn=0198219806}}</ref> There were an estimated 7–12&nbsp;million casualties during the Russian Civil War, mostly civilians.{{sfn|Mawdsley|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287]}} === Deportations from East Prussia === {{Excerpt|Deportations from East Prussia during World War I|paragraphs=1|files=0}}<!--In 1916, an order was issued to deport around 650,000 [[Volga Germans]] to the east as well, but the Russian Revolution prevented this from being carried out.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.prairiepublic.org/features/GFR/timeline.htm |title=The Germans from Russia: Children of the Steppe/Children of the Prairie |publisher=Prairie Public Broadcasting |access-date=17 November 2009 }}{{dead link|date=April 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>--> == War crimes by both Allied and Central Powers == === Use of chemical weapons === {{Main|Chemical weapons in World War I}} [[File:French_soldiers_making_a_gas_and_flame_attack_on_German_trenches_in_Flanders._Belgium.,_ca._1900_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530722.tif|thumb|French soldiers making a gas and flame attack on German trenches in Flanders]] The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the [[Second Battle of Ypres]] (22 April – 25 May 1915), after German scientists working under the direction of [[Fritz Haber]] at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Society|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] developed a method to weaponize [[chlorine]].{{efn|A German attempt to use chemical weapons on the Russian front in January 1915 failed to cause casualties.}}<ref name="AJPH">{{cite journal |last=Fitzgerald |first=Gerard |date=April 2008 |title=Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=611–625 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.11930 |pmc=2376985 |pmid=18356568 |quote=<!--In the late afternoon of April 22, 1915, members of a special unit of the German Army opened the valves on more than 6000 steel cylinders arrayed in trenches along their defensive perimeter at Ypres, Belgium. Within 10 minutes, 160 tons of chlorine gas drifted over the opposing French trenches, engulfing all those downwind.&nbsp;... The attack that spring day, nonetheless, marked a turning point in military history, as it is recognized as the first successful use of lethal chemical weapons on the battlefield.&nbsp;... Although chemical weapons killed proportionally few soldiers in World War{{nbsp}}I (1914–1918), the psychological damage from 'gas fright' and the exposure of large numbers of soldiers, munitions workers, and civilians to chemical agents had significant public health consequences.&nbsp;... By the time of the armistice on 11 November 1918, the use of chemical weapons such as chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas had resulted in more than 1.3 million casualties and approximately 90 000 deaths.--> |doi-access=free}}</ref> The use of chemical weapons was sanctioned by the [[Oberste Heeresleitung|German High Command]] in an effort to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons.<ref name="AJPH" /> In time, chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3&nbsp;million casualties, but relatively few fatalities: About 90,000 in total.<ref name="AJPH" /> For example, there were an estimated 186,000 British chemical weapons casualties during the war (80% of which were the result of exposure to the [[Blister agent|vesicant]] [[sulfur mustard]], introduced to the battlefield by the Germans in July 1917, which burns the skin at any point of contact and inflicts more severe lung damage than chlorine or [[phosgene]]),<ref name="AJPH" /> and up to one-third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War{{nbsp}}I.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Barry R. |title=Future War and Counterproliferation: US Military Responses to NBC |date=28 February 1999 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-275-96278-4 |page=84}}</ref> The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907#Hague Convention of 1899|1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases]] and the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare]], which prohibited their use.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Telford |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyofnuremb00tayl/page/34 |title=The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-316-83400-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofnuremb00tayl/page/34 34] |access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Graham |first1=Thomas |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=0PYx0j3wRvAC |page=7}} |title=Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era |last2=Lavera |first2=Damien J. |date=2003 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-98296-0 |pages=7–9 |access-date=5 July 2013}}</ref> The effect of poison gas was not limited to combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the [[poison gases]] through their towns, and they rarely received warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective [[Gas mask|gas masks]]. An estimated 100,000–260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but nonetheless continued to use them. British [[Field marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig|Douglas Haig]] wrote in his diary, "My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all."<ref>{{cite book |last=Haber |first=L.F. |title=The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War |date=20 February 1986 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-858142-0 |pages=106–108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vilensky |first=Joel A. |title=Dew of Death: The Story of Lewisite, America's World War I Weapon of Mass destruction |date=20 February 1986 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-34612-4 |pages=78–80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ellison |first=D. Hank |title=Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8493-1434-6 |edition=2nd |pages=567–570}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boot |first=Max |title=War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World |publisher=Gotham |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59240-315-8 |pages=245–250}}</ref> The war damaged the prestige of [[chemistry]] in European societies, especially the German variety.<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Jeffrey Allan |url=http://www.oapen.org/search?identifier=1002249 |title=One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-51664-6 |editor1-last=Friedrich |editor1-first=Bretislav |pages=147–148 |chapter=Military-Industrial Interactions in the Development of Chemical Warfare, 1914–1918: Comparing National Cases Within the Technological System of the Great War |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6 |access-date=6 June 2020 |editor2-last=Hoffmann |editor2-first=Dieter |editor3-last=Renn |editor3-first=Jürgen |editor4-last=Schmaltz |editor4-first=Florian |editor5-last=Wolf |editor5-first=Martin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217110538/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/27756 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Massacres of Albanians === {{Main articles|Massacres of Albanians in World War I}} During the Balkan Wars, [[Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars|Albanians were massacred by members of the Balkan League]], mostly by Serbian and Montenegrin forces. These massacres [[Massacres of Albanians in World War I|continued during the First World War]] as foreign armies entered Albania. Bulgarian, Serbian, [[Montenegro in World War I|Montenegrin]], and [[Hellenic Army|Greek forces]] committed several atrocities in Albania, during occupation, and in other regions inhabited by Albanians. Many villages were burned and destroyed, leaving 330,000 people without homes by 1915.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Skopiansky |first=M. |url=https://www.strumski.com/books/m.d.skopiansky_atrocites_serbes.pdf |title=Les Atrocités Serbes |year=1919 |pages=119}}</ref> According to the [[Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo|Committee of Kosovo]], 50,000 Albanians were killed by Central Powers affiliated Bulgarian forces and around 200,000 Albanians were killed by Allied affiliated Serbian and Montenegrin forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Elsie |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxJbEAAAQBAJ |title=Kosovo, A Documentary History: From the Balkan Wars to World War II |last2=D. Destani |first2=Bejtullah |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2019 |isbn=9781838600037}}</ref> === Sinking of hospital ships === {{Excerpt|List of hospital ships sunk in World War I|files=0}} ==== Torpedoing of HMHS ''Llandovery Castle'' ==== {{See also|Unrestricted submarine warfare}} The Canadian hospital ship {{HMHS|Llandovery Castle}} was torpedoed by the German submarine [[SM U-86]] on 27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats, machine-gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, [[Helmut Brümmer-Patzig]], was charged with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the [[Free City of Danzig]], beyond the jurisdiction of German courts.<ref name="Davies2013c">{{cite book |last=Davies |first=J.D. |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=urs7AwAAQBAJ |page=158}} |title=Britannia's Dragon: A Naval History of Wales |publisher=History Press Limited |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7524-9410-4 |page=158 |author-link=J. D. Davies (historian and author)}}</ref> == Impacts on international law == === Crimes against humanity and genocide as international crimes === {{Further|May 1915 Triple Entente declaration}} [[File:Allied_declaration_on_crimes_against_humanity,_1915.jpg|thumb|Version of the declaration forwarded to the Ottoman Empire by the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]].]] On 24 May 1915, on the initiative of Russia, the [[Triple Entente]]—Russia, [[French Third Republic|France]], and the United Kingdom—issued a declaration condemning the Ottomans for committing "[[Crimes against humanity|crimes […] against humanity]] and civilization" against the Armenians, threatening to hold the perpetrators accountable.<ref name="armradio">{{cite news |last1=Ghazanchyan |first1=Siranush |date=24 May 2020 |title=105 years ago Entente Powers called the massacre of Armenians "crimes against humanity" |url=https://en.armradio.am/2020/05/24/105-years-ago-entente-powers-called-the-massacre-of-armenians-crimes-against-humanity/ |access-date=8 May 2021 |work=Public Radio of Armenia}}</ref> Although the phrase "crimes against humanity" had been used prior to this,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0U74u6SyRwC |title=Confronting Genocide |date=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-9048198405 |editor-last=Provost |editor-first=René |page=33 |editor-last2=Akhavan |editor-first2=Payam}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lösing |first=Felix |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1182579739 |title=A 'Crisis of Whiteness' in the 'Heart of Darkness'. Racism and the Congo Reform Movement |publisher=transcript |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-8376-5498-1 |edition= |location=Bielefeld |page=80 |oclc=1182579739}}</ref> it was the first time the phrase was used in the context of [[Diplomacy|international diplomacy]],{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=308}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garibian |first1=Sévane |date=10 February 2016 |title=Crime against Humanity |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/crime-against-humanity |journal=Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network |language=en |publisher=[[Sciences Po]]}}</ref> and it later became a category of [[international criminal law]] after [[World War II]].{{sfn|Dadrian|Akçam|2011|p=17}} Polish-Jewish lawyer [[Raphael Lemkin]], who coined the term ''[[genocide]]'' in 1944, became interested in the prosecution of war crimes after reading about the 1921 trial of [[Soghomon Tehlirian]] for the [[assassination of Talaat Pasha]]. Lemkin recognized the fate of the Armenians as one of the most significant genocides in the twentieth century.<ref name="schab">{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&pg=PA25 |title=Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes |date=2000 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521787901 |page=25 |quote=Lemkin's interest in the subject dates to his days as a student at Lvov University, when he intently followed attempts to prosecute the perpetration of the massacres of the Armenians. |author-link=William Schabas |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>{{sfn|de Waal|2015|pp=132–133}}{{sfn|Ihrig|2016|pp=9, 370–371}} === Establishment of the Geneva Protocol === {{Main articles|Geneva Protocol}} The [[Geneva Protocol]], signed by 132 nations on 17 June 1925, was a treaty established to ban the use of chemical and biological weapons during wartime. As stated by Coupland and Leins, "it was fostered in part by a 1918 appeal in which the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) described the use of poisonous gas against soldiers as a barbarous invention which science is bringing to perfection".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robin Coupland |first=Kobi-Renée Leins |date=2005-07-20 |title=Science and Prohibited Weapons – ICRC |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/weapons-biotechnology-200705.htm |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=Science Magazine |language=en-us}}</ref> The Protocol required that all remaining stockpiles of chemical weapons be destroyed. Chemical warfare agents that contained bromine, nitroaromatic, and chlorine were dismantled and destroyed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haas |first=Rainer |date=1999-03-01 |title=Destruction of chemical weapons – Technologies and practical aspects |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02987115 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=19 |bibcode=1999ESPR....6...19H |doi=10.1007/BF02987115 |issn=1614-7499 |pmid=19005858 |s2cid=185978}}</ref> The destruction and disposal of the chemicals did not consider the long-term and adverse impacts on the environment. Although the Geneva Protocol banned the use of chemical weapons during wartime, the Protocol did not ban the production of chemical weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arms Control and Disarmament |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/disarmament |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref> In fact, since the Geneva Protocol, the stockpiling of chemical weapons has continued, and weapons have become more lethal. As a result, the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] (CWC) was drafted in 1993, which prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. Despite there being an international ban on chemical warfare, the CWC "allows domestic law enforcement agencies of the signing countries to use chemical weapons on their citizens".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Alexandra |date=2022-01-19 |title=Chemical Weapons and their Unforeseen Impact on Health and the Environment |url=https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sjteil/vol12/iss1/1 |journal=Seattle Journal of Technology, Environmental & Innovation Law |volume=12 |issue=1}}</ref> == See also == {{Commons category|War crimes in World War I}} * [[List of war crimes#1914–1918: World War I|List of war crimes]] * [[War crimes in World War II]] == Notes == <references group="lower-alpha" /> == References == <references /> === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Akçam |first=Tanner |title=From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide |date=2004 |publisher=Zed Books |author-link=Taner Akçam}} * {{cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=The 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Infringements of the Rules and Laws of War Committed by the Austro-Bulgaro-Germans |publisher=FCT Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-353-06558-1}} * {{cite book | last=Reiss | first=R.A. | title=How Austria-Hungary Waged War in Serbia | publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC | year=2019 | isbn=978-0-353-68572-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r50LwwEACAAJ | language=fr}} * {{Citation |last=Rendel |first=GW |title=Memorandum by Mr. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice |date=20 March 1922 |url=http://www.greek-genocide.net/index.php/bibliography/books/252-memorandum-by-mr-rendel-on-turkish-massacres-and-persecutions-of-minorities-since-the-armistice |type=memorandum |access-date=26 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416110339/http://www.greek-genocide.net/index.php/bibliography/books/252-memorandum-by-mr-rendel-on-turkish-massacres-and-persecutions-of-minorities-since-the-armistice |url-status=dead |publisher=British Foreign Office |archive-date=16 April 2022}} * {{citation |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J. |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies—introduction |date=March 2008 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470 |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen}} * {{cite book |last1=Shepherd |first1=Ben H. |title=War in a Twilight World: Partisan and Anti-Partisan Warfare in Eastern Europe, 1939–45 |last2=Pattinson |first2=Juliette |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-23057-569-1 |editor1=Ben Shepherd |location=New York |chapter=Introduction: Illuminating a Twilight World |editor2=Juliette Pattinson}} * {{cite book | last=Stibbe | first=M. | title=Civilian Internment during the First World War: A European and Global History, 1914–1920 | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-137-57191-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWS-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110}} * {{cite book | last=Stojančević | first=V. | title=Serbia and the Serbian Nation during the War and Occupation 1914–1918| year=1988 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXoSAQAAIAAJ | language=sr}} * {{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor |title="They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide |title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1 |author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny}} * {{citation |last1=Üngör |first1=Ugur Ümit |title=The making of modern Turkey : nation and state in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199603602}} * {{Citation |last=Valavanis |first=G. K. |url=http://pontosworld.com/index.php/books/greek/748-2013-08-28-00-01-03 |year=1925 |trans-title=Contemporary General History of Pontus |script-title=el:Σύγχρονος Γενική Ιστορία του Πόντου |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108234007/http://pontosworld.com/index.php/books/greek/748-2013-08-28-00-01-03 |url-status=dead |place=Athens |publisher=Pamprosfygiki |language=el |archive-date=8 November 2015}} * {{cite book | last=Wawro | first=G. | title=A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire | publisher=Basic Books | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-465-08081-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6lVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT195}} * {{cite book | last=Winter | first=J. | title=The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume 3, Civil Society | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-316-02554-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8ZkAwAAQBAJ }} {{Refend}} == Further reading == * {{Cite journal |last=Koch |first=Julia |date=26 May 2022 |title=World War I and the Armenian Genocide: Laying the Groundwork for Crimes Against Humanity |url=https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pilr/vol34/iss2/3 |journal=Pace International Law Review |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=101 |doi=10.58948/2331-3536.1420 |issn=2331-3536|doi-access=free }} * {{Cite book |last=Maogoto |first=Jackson Nyamuya |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/3926594/47da985f5271e.pdf |title=War crimes and realpolitik: international justice from World War I to the 21st century |date=2004 |publisher=Rienner |isbn=978-1-58826-252-3 |location=Boulder, Colo.}} * {{Cite book |last=Schabas |first=William A. |title=Justice Without Borders |date=3 January 2018 |chapter=International Prosecution of Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes Perpetrated during the First World War |pages=395–410 |publisher=Brill Nijhoff |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004352063_018 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004352063/B9789004352063_017.xml |isbn=978-90-04-35206-3}} * {{Cite journal |last=Segesser |first=Daniel Marc |year=2007 |title='Unlawful Warfare is Uncivilised': The International Debate on the Punishment of War Crimes, 1872–1918 |journal=European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=215–234 |doi=10.1080/13507480701433885 |issn=1350-7486 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal |last=Travis |first=Hannibal |date=December 2006 |title="Native Christians Massacred": The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians during World War I |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055 |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |language=en |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=327–371 |doi=10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055 |issn=1911-0359}} {{World War I}}{{War crimes}} [[Category:World War I crimes| ]] [[Category:World War I]]'