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For the preceding article, see List of Classical Age states. For the succeeding article, see List of states during the Middle Ages.
Ancient history
Preceded by prehistory
Near East
Europe
Horn of Africa
North Africa
Eurasian Steppe
Central Asia
East Asia
South Asia
Northern America
Mesoamerica
Andes
Caribbean
West Africa and Central Africa
Southeast Asia and Oceania
See also

Development of states

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The development of states—large-scale, populous, politically centralized, and socially stratified polities/societies governed by powerful rulers, marks one of the major milestones in the evolution of human societies. Archaeologists often distinguish between primary (or pristine) states and secondary states. Primary states evolved independently through largely internal developmental processes rather than through the influence of any other pre-existing state. The earliest known primary states appeared in Mesopatamia c. 3700 BC, in Egypt c. 3300 BC, in the Indus Valley c. 2500 BC, India c. 1700 BC,and in China c. 1600 BC. As they interacted with their less developed neighbors through trade, warfare, migration, and more generalized ideological influences, the primary states directly or indirectly fostered the emergence of secondary states in surrounding areas, for example, the Hittites in Anatolia, the Minoan and Mycenaean states of the Aegean, or the Nubian kingdoms in the Sudan. Professor Gil Stein at the University of Chicago Oriental Institute states "The excavations and archaeological surveys of the last few decades have vastly increased both the quantity and quality of what we know about ancient states and urbanism. Archaeologists have broadened the scope of their research beyond the traditional focus on rulers and urban elites. Current research now aims at understanding the role of urban commoners, craft specialists, and village-based farmers in the overall organization of ancient states and societies. Given the immense geographical scope encompassed by the term 'the Ancient World'".[1] This list's the main types state that existed in Africa, Americas, Central Asia, East Asia, Europe, Eurasian Steppe, South Asia, and West Asia, from the beginning of Late Antiquity to the beginning of the Middle Ages a period of 500 years.

Late Antiquity 200 - 700 AD

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Late Antiquity is a historiographical term for the historical period from c. 200 AD to c. 700 AD, which marks the transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in mainland Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East including South Asia and East Asia. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but historian Peter Brown proposed a period between the 2nd and 8th centuries. Generally, it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (c. 235 – 284) to the re-organization of the Eastern Roman Empire under Heraclius and the Muslim conquests in the mid-7th century.

Africa

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Map of the world during late antiquity 400 AD
name capital/s state type existed
Aksumite Empire Aksum Empire 100 - 960 AD
Alodia Soba Empire 680 - 1504 AD
Blemmyes Not specified Tribal Kingdom 600 BC - 8th century AD
Byzantine Empire Constantinople Empire 330 - 1453 AD
Garamantian Garama Tribal Confederation/Empire 1000 BC - 700 AD
Garmul Altava Kingdom 530 - 578 AD
Ghana Empire Koumbi Saleh Empire 400 - 1235 AD
Makuria Dongola Kingdom 340-1312 AD
Mauretania Julia Caesara Kingdom/Client Kingdom 285 BC - 698 AD
Nobatia Pachoras Kingdom 350-650 AD
Nok Various Tribal Chiefdoms/Kingdom 1000 BC - 300AD
Palmyrene Empire Palmyra Empire 260 - 273 AD
Rashidun Caliphate Medina, Kuffa Empire (religious) 632 - 661 AD
Roman Empire Rome Empire 27 BC - 476 AD
Sao Various Tribal city states 6th century BC - 6th century AD
Umayyad Caliphate Dammascus, Harran Empire (religious) 661 - 750 AD
Vandals & Alans Carthage Kingdom 435 - 534 AD

Americas

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name capital/s state type Existed
Cañari Tumebamba Tribal Confederacy 500 - 1533 AD
Maya Various Kingdom City States 2000 BC - 900AD
Moche Moche-Trujillo. United Independent Polities 100 - 800 AD
Nazca Various Tribal chiefdom's 100 BC - 800 AD
Pueblo Various Tribal chiefdom's 12th century BC - 14th century AD
Teotihuacan Empire Teotihuacan Empire 100 BC - 8th century AD
Tiwanakun Empire Tiwanaku Empire 300 - 1000 AD
Wari Empire Huari Empire 500 - 1100 AD
Zapotec Various Kingdom City States 700 BC - 1521 AD

Europe

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North and West

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name capital/s state type existed
Alamani Not specified Tribal Confederation 85 BC - 213 AD
Alamannia Not specified Kingdom 213 AD - 496 AD
Ailech Grianán Ailigh Kingdom 450 - 1617 AD
Airgíalla Clogher Tribal Federation/Kingdom 331 - 1590 AD
Armorica Not specified Kingdom/dukedom 343 - 1532 AD
Austrasia Metz Kingdom 511 - 751 AD
Avar Khaganate Not specified Khaganate 567 - 804 AD
Basternae Various Tribal Confederation 200 BC - 300AD
Bavaria Not specified Dukedom 508 - 788 AD [2]
Bernicia Bamburgh Kingdom 420 - 634 AD
Breifne Croghan Kingdom 700 - 1256 AD
Broërec Not specified Principality 490 - 636 AD
Brycheiniog Talgarth Kingdom 450 - 1045 AD
First Burgundian Borbetomagus, Lugdunum Kingdom 410 - 534 AD
Cait Not specified Tribal kingdom 25 - 871 AD
Ce Not specified Tribal kingdom 1st century - 900 AD
Ceredigion Not specified Kingdom 475 - 680 AD
Cornouaille Not specified Principality 430 - 1084 AD
Cornovii Not specified Tribal kingdom 4th century BC - 343 AD
Cornubia or Corniu Not specified Dukedom/earldom/client 430 - 1066 AD
Deira York Kingdom 559 - 664 AD
Dal Riada Dunadd Kingdom 501 - 878 AD
Dumnonia Isca Dumnoniorum Dukedom/principality 290 - 875 AD
Dyfed Not specified Kingdom 410 - 910 AD
East Angles Rendlesham, Dommoc Kingdom 6th C - 918 AD
Fortriu Not specified Tribal kingdom 1 - 850 AD
Franks Various Tribal Confederation 210 - 481 AD
Frankish Empire Tournai, Paris Kingdom/Empire 481 - 843 AD
Frisian Dorestad, Utrecht Kingdom 600 - 734 AD
Gallic Empire Colonia Agrippina, Augusta Treverorum Empire 260 - 274 AD
Gepidia Sirmium Kingdom 454 - 567 AD
Gododdin Not specified Kingdom 5th - 8th century AD
Gwent Caerwent, Porth-is-Coed Kingdom 420 - 1081 AD
Gwynedd Various Kingdom 420 - 1261 AD
Glywysing Cardiff Kingdom 490 - 1063 AD
Haestingas Hastings Tribal kingdom 6th century - 771 AD
Hunnic Empire Not specified Tribal Empire 420 - 469 AD
Kent Durovernum Kingdom 488 - 871 AD
Lindsey Lindum Kingdom/Client 410 - 775 AD
Magna Frisia Dorestad, Utrecht Kingdom 600 - 734 AD
Meath Dublin Kingdom 1st century - 1173 AD
Mercia Tamworth Kingdom 527 - 918 AD
Northumbria Bamburgh Kingdom 653 - 954 AD
Old Saxony Not specified Dukedom 2nd century? - 804 AD
Ossory Kilkenny Kingdom 150 - 1185 AD
Pictland Not specified Kingdom 250 BC - 850 AD [3]
Poher Vorgium Principality 520 - 936 AD
Powys Various Kingdom 488 - 1160 AD
Raetia Curiensis Chur Bishopric (religious state) 452 - 1176 AD
Rheged Not specified Kingdom 550 - 650 AD
Rugiland Vindobona Kingdom 467 - 487 AD
Roman Empire Rome Empire 27 BC-476 AD
Saxons Not specified Tribal confederation 5th century BC - 754 AD
Soissons Noviodunum Kingdom 457 - 486 AD
Strathclyde Dumbarton, Govan Kingdom 450 - 1093 AD
Suebi Not specified Tribal Confederation 60 BC - 409AD
Sussex Selsey Kingdom 477 - 825 AD
Thuringia Not specified Duchy 450 - 1247 AD
Tyrconnell Dun na nGall Kingdom 464 - 1607 AD
Uí Failghe Rathangan, Daingean Kingdom 507 - 1550 AD
Visigothic Various Kingdom 418 - 720 AD
Wessex Winchester Kingdom 519 - 1018 AD

South and East

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name capital/s state type existed
Avar Khaganate Not specified Khaganate 567 - 804 AD
Benevento Benevento Dukedom/Principality/Client 571 - 1074 AD
Burgundian Borbetomagus,Lugdunum Kingdom 410 - 534 AD
Byzantine Empire Constantinople Empire 330 - 1453 AD
First Bulgarian Empire Various Empire 681 - 1018 AD
Frankish Empire Tournai, Paris Kingdom/Empire 431 - 768 AD
Gallic Empire Colonia Agrippina, Augusta Treverorum Empire 260 - 274 AD
Gepidia Sirmium Kingdom 454–567 AD
Getae Not specified Tribal Kingdom 7th century BC -4th century AD
Hunnic Empire Not specified Tribal Empire 420 - 469 AD
Khazar Khaganate Various Nomadic Kingdom 618 - 1048 AD
Kutrigurs Not specified Nomadic confederation/client 453 - 8th century AD
Lombard Pavia Kingdom 568 – 774 AD
Magyar Not specified Tribal Confederation/Principality 1100 BC - 895 AD
Ostrogothic Ravenna Kingdom 493–553 AD
Paeonia Not specified Principality/Kingdom/Client 535 BC - 681 AD
Roman Empire Rome Empire 27 BC-476 AD
San Marino San Marino Republic 301 AD - still active
Serbian Sklavinia Not specified Tribal kingdom 520-768 AD
Suebic Braga Kingdom 409 - 585 AD
Tridentum Benevento Dukedom/Principality (religious) 574 - 1802 AD
Vandals & Alans Carthage Kingdom 435 - 534 AD
Visigothic Toulouse, Narbonne, Toledo Kingdom 418 - 720 AD

Eurasian Steppe and Central Asia

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name capital/s state type existed
Afrighid Kath Kingdom/Client 305 - 995 AD
Avar Khaganate Not specified Khaganate 567 - 804 AD
Albania Kabalak, Partav Kingdom/Client 65 BC - 628 AD
Balhae Empire Dongmo Empire 698 - 926 AD
Barsil Not specified Tribal union 600 - 700 AD
Caspiane Not specified Tribal Kingdom/Client 650 BC - 387 AD
Chionites Not specified Tribal federation 320 - late 5th century AD
Cimmerian Bosporus Panticapaeum Kingdom/Client 480 BC - 370 AD
Dayuan Not specified Kingdom/Client 329 BC - 280 AD
First Bulgarian Empire Various Empire 681 - 1018 AD
Fergana Khokand Kingdom 220 BC - 590 AD
Göktürk Khaganate Ordu Baliq Confederation 552 - 747 AD
Hephthalite Empire Various Empire 408 - 670 AD
Hunnic Empire Not specified Tribal Empire 420 - 469 AD
Iberia Various Kingdom 302 BC - 580 AD
Iberia Tbilisi Principality 580 - 891 AD
Kangju Not specified Tribal Federation 280 BC - 585 AD
Kashgar Kashgar Kingdom/Client 80 - 850 AD
Khazar Khaganate Various Nomadic Kingdom 618 - 1048 AD
Khitan Shangjing Kingdom/Client 388 -1211 AD
Kucha Kucha Buddhist Kingdom 46 - 658 AD
Kushan Empire Various Empire 30 - 375 AD
Lazica Phasis Kingdom/client 1st century BC - 7th century AD
Magyar Not specified Tribal Confederation/Principality 1100 BC - 895 AD
Old Great Bulgaria Phanagoria Kingdom 632 - 668 AD
Parthian Empire Ctesiphon Empire 247 BC - 224 AD
Rashidun Caliphate Medina, Kuffa Empire (religious) 632 - 661 AD
Roman Empire Rome Empire 27 BC-476 AD
Rouran Khaganate Not specified Confederation 330 - 555 AD
Sarmatia Tarki (Makhachkala) Tribal Confederation 450BC-400 AD
Sarir Humraj Kingdom/Client 453 - 1000 AD
Tang Empire Chang'an, Luoyang Empire 618 - 907 AD
Tibetan Empire Lhasa, Pho brang Empire 618 - 841 AD
Tuoba Empire Shengle Empire 386 -585 AD
Turgesh Khaganate Balasagun Nomadic Empire 699 -766 AD
Tuyuhun Fuqi Kingdom 285 - 670 AD
Umayyad Caliphate Dammascus, Harran Empire (religious) 661 - 750 AD
Venedae Not specified Tribal Confederation 400 BC - 7th century AD
Volga Bulgaria Bolghar, Bilär Kingdom 660 - 1236 AD

East Asia

[edit]
Map of the world during late antiquity 600 AD
name capital/s state type existed
Baekje Various Kingdom 18 BC - 660 AD
Balhae Empire Dongmo Empire 698 - 926 AD
Buyeo Buyeoseong Kingdom 189 BC - 494 AD
Cao Wei Various Kingdom 220 – 265 AD
Champa Various Kingdom 192 – 1832 AD
Cheng Han Chengdu Kingdom 304–347 AD
Chenla Bhavapura, Isanapura Kingdom 550–706 AD
Chouchi Lüeyang Principality 184 – 511 AD
Duan Not specified Tribal Chiefdom/Dukedom 250 – 338 AD
Eastern Wu Wuchang, Jianye Kingdom 229 – 280 AD
Funan Various Kingdom 60-550 AD
Gaya Gaya Confederacy 42-562 AD
Goguryeo Various Kingdom 37 BC - 668 AD
Göktürk Khaganate Ordu Baliq Nomadic Confederacy 552 - 747 AD
Han Empire Various Empire 206 BC-220 AD
Han Zhao Lishi Kingdom 304–329 AD
Hephthalite Empire Various Empire 408 - 670 AD
Jōmon Various Principalities/Empire 600 BC - present day
Khitan Shangjing Kingdom/Client 388 -1211 AD
Khotan Khotan Kingdom 56 - 1006 AD
Langkasuka Kedah, Pattani Kingdom 100 - 1516 AD
Liu Song Empire Jiankang Empire 420 – 479 AD
Lavo Lavo, Ayodhaya Kingdom 450 – 1388 AD
Mahan Cheonan Confederacy 98 BC - 250 AD
Melayu Jambi Kingdom 4th - 13th centuries AD
Northern Liang Jiankang Kingdom/Client 397–460 AD
Pyu Sri Ksetra Federated City States 250 BC - 1085 AD
Rouran Khaganate Not specified Nomadic Confederacy 330 - 555 AD
Shu Han Chengdu Kingdom 221 - 263 AD
Siljik Not specified Kingdom 102 - 6th century AD
Silla Gyeongju Kingdom 55 BC - 935 AD
Southern Qi Jiankang Kingdom 477 -502 AD
Sumpa Not specified Tribal chiefdom/client 1600 BC - 7th century AD
Sunda Various Kingdom 669 - 1579 AD
Tang Empire Chang'an, Luoyang Empire 618 - 907 AD
Taruma Sundapura Kingdom 358 -669 AD
Tibetan Empire Lhasa, Pho brang Empire 618 - 841 AD
Tuoba Empire Shengle Empire 386 -585 AD
Thaton Thaton Kingdom 300 BC - 1085 AD
Turfan Turpan Buddist Kingdom 480 -640 AD
Tuyuhun Fuqi Nomadic Kingdom 285 -670 AD
Usan Not specified Kingdom 512 – 930 AD
Western Qin Yongshicheng Kingdom 385–431 AD
Xianbei Not specified Nomadic (Empire) 93-234 AD
Yamatai Not specified Kingdom 300 BC - 300 AD

South Asia

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Map of the Raishidum Caliphate at its peak 500 AD
name capital/s state type existed
Anuradhapura Anuradhapura Kingdom 377 BC - 1017 AD
Ay Aykudi Kingdom 4th century BC - 12th century AD
Bumthang Chakhar Gutho Kingdom 7th - 17th centuries AD
Eastern Chalukya Vengi, Rajamundry Kingdom 624 - 1129 AD
Gauda Karnasuvarna Kingdom 590 - 626 AD
Gurjara Pratihara Empire Kannauj Empire 650 - 1036 AD
Gupta Empire Pataliputra Empire 320-620 AD
Harsha Empire Kanauj Empire 606 - 647 AD
Hephthalite Empire Kunduz,Balkh, Sialko Empire 408 - 670 AD
Huna not specified Tribal Kingdom 475 - 576 AD
Indo-Scythia Sigal, Taxila, Mathura Kingdom 200-400 AD
Kamarupa Various Kingdom 350 - 1140 AD
Kabul Shahi Kabul, Waihind Kingdom/Empire 6th century - 1026 AD
Kuninda Shravasti Kingdom 500 BC - 300 AD
Kushan Empire Various Empire 30 - 375 AD
Maitraka Empire Vallabhi Empire 475 - 767 AD
Maukhari Empire Kannauj Empire 550 - 700 AD
Mushika Ezhimalai Kingdom 3rd century BC - 4th century AD
Pallava Empire Kanchi Empire 250 BC - 800 AD
Pundra Pundravardhana Kingdom 1300 BC - 550 AD
Rai Empire Aror Empire 489-690 AD
Rajarata Various Kingdom 377 BC -1310 AD
Rashidun Caliphate Medina, Kuffa Empire (religious) 632 - 661 AD
Ror Rori Kingdom 450 BC - 489 AD
Ruhuna Magama Principality 200 BC - 450 AD
Satavahana Empire Vatsagulma Empire 250 - 500 AD
Tibetan Empire Lhasa, Pho brang Empire 618 - 841 AD
Umayyad Caliphate Dammascus, Harran Empire (religious) 661 - 750 AD
Vakataka Empire Amaravati Empire 230 BC - 230 AD
Vishnukundina Empire Indrapalanagara Empire 420 - 624 AD
Western Ganga Kolar, Talakad Kingdom 350 - 1000 AD
Western Satrap Empire Ozone, Barygaza Kingdom 35 - 405 AD

West Asia

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name capital/s state type existed
Adiabene Arbela Kingdom/Client 15 - 310 AD
Araba Hatra Kingdom 3rd century BC - 300AD
Armenia Van Kingdom 553 BC - 428AD
Arminiya Dvin Principality/client 653 - 884 AD
Aravelian not specified Principality/client 400 - 600 AD
Atropatene Ganzak Kingdom/Client 320 BC - 226AD
Byzantine Empire Constantinople Empire 330 - 1453 AD
Elymais Susa Kingdom/Client 147 BC -224 AD
Gardman Parisos Principality/Kingdom/Client 66 - 428 AD
Ghassanid Balka, Harith, Petra, Sideir Kingdom/Client 220 - 712 AD
Hadhramaut Not specified Kingdom 700 BC - 320 AD
Indo-Scythia Sigal,Taxila,Mathura Kingdom 200 BC - 400 AD
Khazar Khaganate Atil, Balanjar,Semender Nomadic Kingdom 618 - 1048 AD
Lakhmid Al-Hirah Kingdom 300 - 602 AD
Osroene Edessa Kingdom/Client 134 BC - 244 AD
Palmyrene Empire Palmyra Empire 260 - 273 AD
Parthian Empire Ctesiphon Empire 247 BC - 224 AD
Rashidun Caliphate Medina, Kuffa Empire (religious) 632 - 661 AD
Roman Empire Rome Empire 27 BC-476 AD
Sasanian Empire Estakhr, Ctesiphon Empire 224 - 637 AD
Umayyad Caliphate Dammascus, Harran Empire (religious) 661 - 750 AD

Types of state

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  • Chiefdoms

A Chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in ancient tribal societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a political-ideological aristocracy relative to the general group.[4] A chiefdom is thus led by a highly ranked incumbent of an inherited political role, tribal chief or king: chiefs lead because of their ascribed status, not their achieved status, examples of this type of state would be, Aedui, Brigantes.

  • City states

A City-state is an independent or autonomous entity, not administered as a part of another local government, whose territory consists of a sovereign city its dependencies and possibly its surrounding territory, examples of this type of state would be, Sparta, Tyre.

  • Client states

A client state is a state that is economically, politically or militarily subordinate to another more powerful state in international affairs.[5] Types of client states include: satellite state, associated state, puppet state, neo-colony, protectorate, vassal state and tributary state, More powerful ancient states would create client states by making the leaders of that state subservient out of those it defeated, examples of this type of state would be, Armenia, Ammon, Zheng.

  • Confederations

A Confederation In the context of the history may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple "nations" or "chiefdom's" or "tribes" which maintained their separate leadership, examples of this type of state would be, the Alemanni, Caledonii, Xiongnu.

  • Dukedoms

A Dukedom or, duchy' is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess. Some historic duchies were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms,others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the ancient era, examples of this type of state would be the Qin and Swabia.

  • Earldoms

A Earldom is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by an Earl, Count or Countess in which case it would be called a Countship. Some historic earldom's/countship's were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms,others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the ancient era, examples of this type of state would be the,

  • Empires

The term Empire derives from the Latin imperium (power, authority). Politically, an empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples (ethnic groups) united and ruled either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy. An imperial political structure is established and maintained in two ways: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force (direct, physical action to compel the emperor's goals) or (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with power (the perception that the emperor can physically enforce his desired goals). Examples of this type of state would be, the Athenian Empire, Median Empire and Roman Empire.

  • Federations

A Federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions under a central (federal) government. Several ancient chiefdoms and kingdoms, such as the 4th century BC League of Corinth, Noricum in Central Europe, and the Haudenosaunee Confederation in pre-Columbian North America, could be described as federations or confederations. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an early example of formal non-unitary statehood.

  • Khanates

A Khanate,or Khaganate or Chanat, is a Turco-Mongol-originated word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. In modern Turkish, the word used is kağanlık or hanlık and in modern Azeri of the republic of Azerbaijan, xanlıq. In Mongolian the word khanlig is used, as in "Khereidiin Khanlig" meaning the Khanate of the Kerait. This political entity is typical for people from the Eurasian Steppe and it can be equivalent to tribal chiefdom, principality, kingdom or even empire, examples of this type of state would be, the Göktürk Khaganate,

  • Kingdoms

A Kingdom is a state ruled by a King or Queen) is a form of government in which sovereignty is actually or nominally embodied in a single individual (the monarch).[6] Forms of monarchy differ widely based on the level of legal autonomy the monarch holds in governance, the method of selection of the monarch, and any predetermined limits on the length of their tenure. When the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters, it is called an absolute monarchy and is a form of autocracy. Examples of this type of state would be, Epirus, Nabatea and Pontus.

  • Marquisates

A Marquisate or, March' is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a Marquis or marchioness. Some historic marquisate's were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms,others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the ancient era, examples of this type of state would be the Jin.

  • Principality

A Principality (or Princedom) can either be a monarchical feudatory or a sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a monarch with the title of prince or by a monarch with another title within the generic use of the term prince. Most of these states have historically been a polity, but in some occasions were rather territories in respect of which a princely style is held. The prince's estate and wealth may be located mainly or wholly outside the geographical confines of the principality, examples of this type of state would be Gardman, Corduene.

  • Republics

A Republic is a form of government in which power is exercised by the public at large,[1] and affairs of state are a concern of the public sphere (from Latin: res publica), rather than privately accommodated (such as through inheritance or divine mandate). In modern times the definition of a republic is also commonly limited to a government which excludes a monarch, *Example: Roman Republic, and Kalinga (India).

  • Viscountcy

A Viscountcy or, county is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a Viscount or Viscountess. Some historic viscountcies were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms,others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the ancient era, examples of this type of state would be, Chu (state).

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Stein, Gil J (2001). Understanding Ancient State Societies in the Old World. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press. pp. 353–379.
  2. ^ "Early Germanic tribes". 2013. Regnal Chronologies. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
  3. ^ Salway, Peter. "Gaelic Kingdoms: Kingdoms of Caledonia". 2014. The History Files. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  4. ^ Helms, Mary W. (198). Access to Origins: Affines, Ancestors and Aristocrats. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 4.
  5. ^ Michael Graham Fry, Erik Goldstein, Richard Langhorne. Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Continuum International Publishing, 2002. Pp. 9.
  6. ^ Stuart Berg Flexner and Leonore Crary Hauck, editors, Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd Ed., Random House, New York (1993)
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