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List of massacres in the Soviet Union

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Mass repression
in the Soviet Union
Economic repression
Political repression
Ideological repression
Ethnic repression

The following is a list of massacres that took place in the Soviet Union. For massacres that took place in countries that were once part of the Soviet Union, see the list of massacres in that country.

Name Date Location Deaths Notes
Execution of the Romanov family 1918, July 16–17 Yekaterinburg 11 Justified by the Bolsheviks as necessary to prevent the anti-communist White Army from rescuing them. The USSR repeatedly denied that Vladimir Lenin was responsible.
Explosion in Leontievsky Lane 1919, September 25 Place of mass gathering of people in the premises of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Leontievsky Lane, Tverskoy District, Moscow 12
White Terror 1918–1922 Nationwide

20,000[1] to 300,000[2]

For the purposes of political repression and elimination of opposition to White rule.
Red Terror 1918–1922 Nationwide 100,000[3] – 1,300,000[4] For the purposes of political repression and elimination of opposition to Bolshevik rule.
Tambov Rebellion 19 August 1920 – June 1921 Tambov Governorate 15,000+ (figure of deaths due to execution only) Total of 240,000[5] rebels and civilians killed by communist forces.
Free City Incident 1921, June 28 Svobodny, Amur Oblast, Far Eastern Republic 36-272 The extent of casualties varies depending on the data. Data shows 36 deaths, 864 prisoners, and 59 missing, while other data records 272 deaths, 31 drownings, 250 missing, and 917 prisoners
First Decossackization 1919–1920s Don and Kuban regions Anywhere from 10,000[6] executed to 300,000 - 500,000 both deported and killed[7] The decossackization is sometimes described as a genocide of the Cossacks,[8][9][10][11][12] although this view is disputed,[13] with some historians asserting that this label is an exaggeration.[6] The process has been described by scholar Peter Holquist as part of a "ruthless" and "radical attempt to eliminate undesirable social groups" that showed the Soviet regime's "dedication to social engineering".[14][6]
1921–1923 famine in Ukraine 1921–1923 Ukraine 200,000–1,000,000 No systematic records of fatalities were then made.
August Uprising 1924 Georgia 7,000-10,000[15] After the failed 1924 August uprising in Georgia, Red army detachments exterminated entire families, including women and children, in a series of raids.[16] Mass executions also took place in prisons,[17] where people were shot without trial. Hundreds were shot directly in railway trucks, so that the dead bodies could be removed faster.[18]
Kazakh famine of 1930–33 1930 - 1933 Kazakhstan 1.5 - 2.3 million[19] Some historians and scholars consider that this famine amounted to genocide of the Kazakhs.[20] The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan.[21][22] Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country.[23]
Holodomor 1932c- 1933 Ukraine 3.5-3.9 Million[24] in Ukraine; in total: ~5.7 to 8.7 million Scholars continue to debate "whether the man-made Soviet famine was a central act in a campaign of genocide, or whether it was designed to simply cow Ukrainian peasants into submission, drive them into the collectives and ensure a steady supply of grain for Soviet industrialization."[25] Whether the Holodomor is a genocide is a significant issue in modern politics and there is no international consensus on whether Soviet policies would fall under the legal definition of genocide.[26][27] A number of governments, such as the United States and Canada, have recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide. However, David R. Marples states such decisions are mostly based on emotions, or on pressure by local groups rather than hard evidence.[28] Robert Davies, Stephen Kotkin, and Stephen Wheatcroft reject the notion that Stalin intentionally wanted to kill the Ukrainians, but exacerbated the situation by enacting bad policies and ignorance of the problem,[29][30] which, according to historian John Archibald Getty, was the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars who studied the newly opened Soviet archives in 2000.[13] In contrast according to Simon Payaslian, the scholarly consensus classifies the Holodomor as a genocide.[31]
Karatal Affair 1930 Karatal, Kazakhstan 18-19[32] Kazakhs families were shot dead in their attempt to flee to China with some of the victims including women and children even being raped.[32][33]
Blacklisting of villages in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and the North Caucasus 1932-1933 Ukraine, Kazakhstan, North Caucasus (Kuban) Unknown; hundreds of farms and dozens of districts affected. Some blacklisted areas[34] in Kharkiv could have death rates exceeding 40%[35] while in other areas such as Stalino blacklisting had no particular effect on mortality.[35] 'Blacklisting, synonymous with a "board of infamy", was one of the elements of agitation-propaganda in the Soviet Union, and especially Ukraine and the ethnically Ukrainian[citation needed] Kuban region in the 1930s, coinciding with the Holodomor. Blacklisting was also used in Soviet Kazakhstan.[36] The blacklist system was formalized in 1932 by the November 20 decree "The Struggle against Kurkul Influence in Collective Farms".[37] A blacklisted collective farm, village, or raion (district) had its monetary loans and grain advances called in, stores closed, grain supplies, livestock and food confiscated as a "penalty" and was cut off from trade. Its Communist Party and collective farm committees were purged and subject to arrest, and their territory was forcibly cordoned off by the OGPU secret police.[37] In the end 37 out of 392 districts[38] along with at least 400 collective farms where put on the "black board" in Ukraine, more than half of the farms in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast alone.[39] In 1932, 32 (out of less than 200) districts in Kazakhstan that did not meet grain production quotas were blacklisted.[36]
Sealing of the Ukrainian borders during the Soviet famine 1932-1933 Ukraine 150,000 Joseph Stalin signed the January 1933 secret decree named "Preventing the Mass Exodus of Peasants who are Starving", restricting travel by peasants after requests for bread began in the Kuban and Ukraine; Soviet authorities blamed the exodus of peasants during the famine on anti-Soviet elements, saying that "like the outflow from Ukraine last year, was organized by the enemies of Soviet power."[40] During a single month in 1933, 219,460 people were either intercepted and escorted back or arrested and sentenced.[41] It has been estimated that there were some 150,000 excess deaths as a result of this policy, and one historian asserts that these deaths constitute a crime against humanity.[42] In contrast, historian Stephen Kotkin argues that the sealing of the Ukrainian borders caused by the internal passport system was in order to prevent the spread of famine-related diseases.[43]
Searches for hidden grain in Ukraine Early 1933 Ukraine Possibly 550,000 people had food confiscated from them and an unknown number of them died[44] Between January and mid-April 1933, a factor contributing to a surge of deaths within certain regions of Ukraine during the period was the relentless search for alleged hidden grain by the confiscation of all foodstuffs from certain households, which Stalin implicitly approved of through a telegram he sent on the 1 January 1933 to the Ukrainian government reminding Ukrainian farmers of the severe penalties for not surrendering grain they may be hiding.[45] In his review of Anne Applebaum's book Mark Tauger gives a rough estimate of those affected by the search for hidden pra reserves: "In chapter 10 Applebaum describes the harsh searches that local personnel, often Ukrainian, imposed on villages, based on a Ukrainian memoir collection (222), and she presents many vivid anecdotes. Still she never explains how many people these actions affected. She cites a Ukrainian decree from November 1932 calling for 1100 brigades to be formed (229). If each of these 1100 brigades searched 100 households, and a peasant household had five people, then they took food from 550,000 people, out of 20 million, or about 2-3 percent."[44]
Great purge 1936–1938 Nationwide 700,000[46][47]–1,200,000[48] Ordered by Joseph Stalin.
Finnish Operation of the NKVD 1937–1938 Nationwide 8,000–25,000 Mass arrest, execution and deportations of persons of Finnish origin by NKVD during the Great Purge.[49]
Estonian Operation of the NKVD 1937–1938 Nationwide 4,672 Mass arrest, execution and deportations of persons of Estonian origin by NKVD during the Great Purge[50]
Polish Operation of the NKVD 1937, August – 1938, November Nationwide 111,091[51] Largest ethnic shooting during the Great Purge. Polish Nationalism was a very big movement in The USSR at the time, resulting in the deaths of many Polish Nationalists dubbed as "Fascists" by The Soviet Union.
1937 mass execution of Belarusians 1937, 29–30 October Byelorussian SSR 132[52] Mass extermination of Belarusian writers, artists and statespeople by the Soviet Union occupying authorities[53]
Kurapaty massacres 1937–1941 Kurapaty, Minsk, Byelorussian SSR 7,000–30,000 NKVD summary executions
Sandarmokh 1937-38 Sandarmokh, Karelia 9,000 (Disputed)[54][55][56] Mass executions of prisoners.
Stalinist repressions in Mongolia 1937–1939 Mongolian People's Republic 20,000–35,000
Vinnytsia massacre 1937–1938 Vinnytsia, Ukraine 9,000[57]–11,000[58](Disputed)
Massacre at Dem'ianiv Laz 1939–1941 Pasieczna (Now Pasichna), Soviet-occupied Poland, modern Ivano-Frankivsk At least 524 At least 524 captives (including 150 women with dozens of children) were shot by the NKVD[59]
Katyn massacre 1940, April–May Katyn Forest, Kalinin and Kharkiv prisons 21,857[60] Mass executions of Polish nationals by NKVD.
Lunca massacre 1941, 7 February Lunka, Ukraine 600[61] Hundreds of civilians (mostly ethnic Romanians) were killed when Soviet Border troops opened fire on them while they were attempting to forcefully cross the border from the Soviet Union to Romania, near the village of Lunca, now Lunka in Chernivtsi Oblast.[62]
Zhestianaya Gorka massacre 1941–1943 Zhestianaya Gorka, Novgorod Oblast 2,600 Massacre of partisans and civilians, mostly women and children by Schutzmannschaft and Nazi collaborators.[63]
Fântâna Albă massacre 1941, April 1 Northern Bukovina 44–3,000[64][65] Between 44 and 3,000 civilians were killed by Soviet Border Troops as they attempted to cross the border from the Soviet Union to Romania near the village of Fântâna Albă, now Staryi Vovchynets in Chernivtsi Oblast, Ukraine
NKVD prisoner massacres 1941, June–July Occupied Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Baltic states ~100,000[citation needed] The NKVD prisoner massacres were a series of mass executions of political prisoners carried out by the NKVD, the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs of the Soviet Union, across Eastern Europe, primarily Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia. After the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the NKVD troops were supposed to evacuate political prisoners into the interior of the Soviet Union, but the hasty retreat of the Red Army, the lack of transportation and other supplies and the general disregard for legal procedures often meant that the prisoners were executed. Approximately two thirds of the 150,000 prisoners[66] were murdered; most of the rest were transported into the interior of the Soviet Union, but some were abandoned in the prisons if there was no time to execute them, and others managed to escape.[67]
NKVD prisoner massacre in Lutsk June 23, 1941 Lutsk, Eastern Poland/Western Ukraine around 2,000 Mass execution of Prisoners, mainly Ukrainians and Poles by the NKVD and NKGB
Valozhyn-Tarasovo Death Road June 24–25, 1941 Valozhyn, Occupied Poland (present-day Belarus). 100
Massacre of Broniki July 1, 1941 Broniki, Ukrainian SSR 153 Killing of members of the Wehrmacht by soldiers of the Red Army
NKVD prisoner massacre in Tartu July 9, 1941 Tartu, Estonia 193 193 detainees were shot in Tartu prison and the Gray House courtyard by NKVD
Lychkovo massacre July 18, 1941 Lychkovo, Demyansky Around 41 Mass killing of 41 people, primarily children, by Nazi Germany[68][69]
Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre 1941, August 27–28 Kamianets-Podilskyi 23,600 23,600 Hungarian and Ukrainian Jews were murdered by the German Police Battalion 320 along with Friedrich Jeckeln's Einsatzgruppen, Hungarian soldiers, and the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police[70]
Medvedev Forest massacre 1941, September 11 Medvedev Forest, near Oryol 157 Soviet massacre of political prisoners
1941 Odessa massacre 1941, October 22-24 Odessa 34,000–100,000 Romanian and German troops, supported by local authorities, massacred Jews in Odesa and the surrounding towns in Transnistria
Petrushino Massacres 1941, October 29 - 1943, August 21 outskirts of Taganrog 7,000 Over 7,000 Soviet civilians and POWs, and members of the Taganrog resistance movement were massacred by the German army, with the assistance of non-German divisions, during their occupation of Taganrog
Rostov-on-Don massacre 1942–1943 Zmievskaya Balka, Rostov-on-Don 27,000 Jews and other Soviet Civilians Organized by Nazi forces; part of the Holocaust in Russia[71]
Massacre of Feodosia 1941, December 29, 1942, January 1 Feodosia, Crimea 160 Murder of 160 German POWs by Red Army
Dzyatlava massacre 1942, April 30- August 10 Zdzięcioł (now, Dzyatlava) 3,000–5,000 About 3,000–5,000 Jews were killed near the town of Dzyatlava by a German death squad aided by the Lithuanian and the Belarusian Auxiliary Police battalions[72]
Nizhny Chir massacre 1942, September 2 Nizhny Chir, Stalingrad Oblast 47 Killing of 47 children with intellectual disabilities organized by Nazi forces[73][74]
Massacre of Grischino February 1943 Pokrovsk, Ukrainian SSR 596 A total of 596 prisoners of war, nurses, construction workers and female communication personnel (Nachrichtenhelferinnen) were killed.[75]
Khatyn massacre 1943, March 22 Khatyn Around 149 people, including 75 children under 16 years of age.[76] Extermination of a whole village in Belarus by Nazi Germany
Bolshoye Zarechye massacre 1943, October 30 Bolshoye Zarechye, Leningrad Oblast 66 Soviet civilians were shot and burned alive by the German Army.[77][78]
Krasukha massacre 1943, November 27 Krasukha, Pskov Oblast 280 Soviet civilians were burned alive by the German Army[79]
Khaibakh massacre 1944, February 27 Chechnya, Soviet Union 230–700[80][81] During the deportation of the Chechen and Ingush peoples. Siberian winter was too hard to handle for the Chechens, who lived in a mostly hot climate.
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars 1944, May 18 – 20 Crimea Various estimates
Soviet famine of 1946–1947 in Ukraine 1946–1947 Ukraine 300,000–1,000,000 [82]
1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Kazakhstan 1951, April 10 – June 18 Kazakh SSR 41 Anti-Chechen pogrom[83]
Vorkuta uprising 1953, starting July 19 Vorkuta 42[84][85][86]
Kengir uprising 1954, May 6 – June 26 Kengir, Steplag, Kazakh SSR 500–700[87][88]
1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956, March 4-10 Tbilisi, Georgian SSR 22-800[89][90] Popular demonstrations begin in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, protesting against Nikita Khrushchev's de-Stalinization policy
Novocherkassk massacre 1962, June 1 – 2 Novocherkassk, Rostov Oblast, Russian SFSR 26[91] Massacre of rallying unarmed civilians
1971 Krasnodar bus bombing 1971, June 14 Krasnodar 10 A homemade suitcase bomb placed near the gas tank by mentally ill Peter Volynsky exploded, killing 10 persons and wounding 20–90 others
Aeroflot Flight 773 bombing 1971, October 10 Near Baranovo, Naro-Fominsky District 25
Aeroflot Flight 109 bombing 1973, May 18 Chita-Kadala International Airport, Chita Oblast 81 An Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-104B flying from Irkutsk Airport to Chita Airport exploded in flight after a passenger detonated a bomb when refused passage to China. The plane crashed east of Lake Baikal, killing all 82 passengers.[92]
Letipea massacre 1976, August 8 Letipea, Estonian SSR 11 (including the perpetrator) A conflict between workers and drunken Soviet border guards escalated when one of the guards opened fire with a machine gun, killing multiple workers as well as one of his fellow guards
1977 Moscow bombings 1977, January 8 Moscow 7 A bomb was detonated on a Moscow Metro train as it rolled into Kurskaya station. Seven people died and 37 were seriously injured
Korean Air Lines Flight 007 1983, September 1 Sea of Japan, near Moneron Island, west of Sakhalin Island 269 Korean Air Lines Flight 007 is shot down by Soviet Union Air Force Su-15 Flagon pilot Major Gennadi Osipovich near Moneron Island when the commercial aircraft enters Soviet airspace. All 269 on board are killed, including U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald. * September 6 – The Soviet Union admits to shooting down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, stating that the pilots did not know it was a civilian aircraft when it violated Soviet airspace.
Aeroflot Flight 6833 Hijacking 1983, November 18 Tbilisi, Georgian SSR to Leningrad 8 7 Georgians hijack Aeroflot Flight 6833 in hopes of escaping the Soviet Union. The siege ended with Soviet forces storming the plane and resulting in the deaths of 3 passengers, 2 crew members and 3 hijackers. The remaining hijackers were executed.
Jeltoqsan massacre 1986, December 16 – 19 Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR 168-1,000[93] Mass anti-government protests, break out across the Kazakh SSR, resulting in the massacre of over 168–1,000 protesters
Sumgait massacre 1988, February 26 – March 1 Sumgait, Azerbaijan SSR 32
Aeroflot Flight 3739 Hijacking 1988, March 8 Veshchevo 9 (including 5 of the hijackers) A Tu-154B-2 (СССР-85413), was hijacked by the Ovechkin family, a family of 11 who were attempting to flee the Soviet Union and demanded to be flown to London. The flight engineer persuaded the hijackers to allow a stop in Finland to refuel, but the pilot tricked the hijackers by landing at Veshchevo instead. Realizing they had been tricked, one of the hijackers killed a flight attendant, Tamara Zharkaya. After landing, the aircraft was stormed and another hijacker blew himself up, starting a small fire in the tail that was quickly put out. Four hijackers committed suicide and three passengers also died during the takeover. Two surviving hijackers were tried and received prison sentences
Gugark pogrom March – December 1988 Gugark District, Armenian SSR 11 (per official Soviet data)

21 (per Arif Yunusov)

Anti-Azerbaijani pogroms in Response to similar pogroms of Armenians in Azerbaijan
Kirovabad pogrom 1988, November Kirovabad, Azerbaijan SSR 7 (per Soviet authorities),[94] 130 (per human rights activists)[95]
Tbilisi Massacre 1989, April 9 Tbilisi, Georgia 21[96][97] hundreds of civilians wounded and killed with sapper spades[96]
Fergana massacre 1989, June 3 - 12 Fergana Valley, Uzbek SSR 97 at least 97 Meskhetian Turks had been killed and over 1000 wounded by Uzbek extremists
Novouzenskaya massacre 1989, June 17-28 Zhanaozen, Kazakh SSR ~200 Interethnic clashes on June 17-28, 1989 in the city of Novy Uzen of the Kazakh SSR between groups of Kazakhs and people from the North Caucasus.[98][99]
January Massacre 1990, January 19 – 20 Baku, Azerbaijan 131-170[100][101] Known also as the Black January (Qara Yanvar)
1990 Dushanbe riots 1990, February 12 - 14 Dushanbe, Tajik SSR 26 Anti-Armenian and anti-communist unrest in Dushanbe, 565 injured.
1990 Osh clashes 1990, June 4 - 6 Osh, Kyrgyz SSR 300-600 deaths (official estimate); 1,000-10,000 (unofficial estimate) Ethnic conflict between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks
1990 Tbilisi–Agdam bus bombing 1990, August 10 Khanlar, Azerbaijan 15–20 A bus carrying about 60 passengers from Georgia's capital Tbilisi to Aghdam in Azerbaijan is bombed in Khanlar (now Goygol). The bombing was carried out by two ethnic Armenians named Armen Avanesyan and Mikhail Tatevosov, who were members of Vrezh, an underground militant anti-Azerbaijan group operated out of Rostov-on-Don.
January Events 1991, January 11 – 13 Vilnius, Lithuania 14[102] After Lithuania recently declared its independence, the USSR sent in the army to crackdown on the "nationalist government". Immediately, hundreds of thousands of unarmed Lithuanians went to the streets to defend the local parliament, TV tower, the radio station and other key buildings. 14 people died during the violence. In 2019, Lithuania sentenced 67 people for war crimes and crimes against humanity.[103]
Patrikeyevo massacree 1991, July 14 Patrikeyevo, Bazarnosyzgansky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast 11 Privates Vitaly Semenikhin and Muradov killed 8 soldiers, 3 warrant officers and wounded 2 other soldiers.[104][105][106][107][108]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Rinke, Stefan; Wildt, Michael (2017). Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions: 1917 and Its Aftermath from a Global Perspective. Campus Verlag. p. 58. ISBN 978-3593507057.
  2. ^ Эрлихман, Вадим (2004). Потери народонаселения в XX веке. Издательский дом «Русская панорама». ISBN 5931651071.
  3. ^ Lincoln, W. Bruce (1989). Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War. Simon & Schuster. p. 384. ISBN 0671631667. ...the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.
  4. ^ Rinke, Stefan; Wildt, Michael (2017). Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions: 1917 and Its Aftermath from a Global Perspective. Campus Verlag. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-3593507057.
  5. ^ Sennikov, B.V. (2004). Tambov rebellion and liquidation of peasants in Russia. Moscow: Posev. In Russian. ISBN 5-85824-152-2
  6. ^ a b c Holquist, Peter (1997). ""Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919". Cahiers du Monde Russe. 38 (1): 127–162. doi:10.3406/cmr.1997.2486.
  7. ^ Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe Archived May 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Knopf, 2007 ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 pp. 70–71.
  8. ^ Orlando Figes. A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924. Penguin Books, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024364-X
  9. ^ Donald Rayfield. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him Random House, 2004. ISBN 0-375-50632-2
  10. ^ Mikhail Heller & Aleksandr Nekrich. Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present.
  11. ^ R. J. Rummel (1990). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3. Retrieved 2014-03-01.
  12. ^ Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed Archived December 10, 2009, at the Wayback Machine University of York Communications Office, 21 January 2003
  13. ^ a b Getty, J. Arch (2000). "The Future Did Not Work". The Atlantic. Retrieved 18 July 2020. Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan.
  14. ^ Holquist, Peter (1917-03-08). Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914-1921 - Peter Holquist - Google Boeken. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674009073. Retrieved 2014-03-01.
  15. ^ Pethybridge, Roger William (1990). One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy. Oxford University. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-19-821927-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ Lang, David-Marshall (1962). A Modern History of Soviet Georgia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 243. ISBN 9780700715626.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers.
  18. ^ Surguladze, Akaki. The History of Georgia. Tbilisi, Georgia.
  19. ^ "The Kazakh Famine of 1930-33 and the Politics of History in the Post-Soviet Space | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
  20. ^ Sabol, Steven (2017). 'The Touch of Civilization': Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization. University Press of Colorado. p. 47. ISBN 9781607325505.
  21. ^ Pianciola, Niccolò (2004). "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934". Cahiers du monde russe. 45 (1–2): 137–192.
  22. ^ Pianciola, Niccolò, 2009, Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905-1936), Rome: Viella.
  23. ^ Payne, Matthew J. (2011). "Seeing like a soviet state: settlement of nomadic Kazakhs, 1928–1934". In Alexopoulos, Golgo; Hessler, Julie, eds. Writing the Stalin Era. pp.59–86.
  24. ^ "Holodomor | Facts, Definition, & Death Toll". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
  25. ^ Yaroslav Bilinsky (June 1999). "Was the Ukrainian famine of 1932–1933 genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research. 1 (2): 147–156. doi:10.1080/14623529908413948. ISSN 1462-3528. Wikidata Q54006926. Archived from the original on 2019-10-22.
  26. ^ Marples, David (30 November 2005). "The great famine debate goes on..." ExpressNews (University of Alberta), originally published in the Edmonton Journal. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008.
  27. ^ Kuchytskyi, Stanislav (17 February 2007). Голодомор 1932 — 1933 рр. як геноцид: прогалини у доказовій базі [Holodomor 1932–1933 as genocide: gaps in the evidence]. Den (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  28. ^ Marples, David R. (2009). "Ethnic Issues in the Famine of 1932-1933 in Ukraine". Europe-Asia Studies. 61 (3): 505–518. doi:10.1080/09668130902753325. ISSN 0966-8136. JSTOR 27752256. S2CID 67783643.
  29. ^ Robert William Davies, Stephen G. Wheatcroft, Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History Palgrave Macmillan (2002) ISBN 978-0-333-75461-0, chapter The Soviet Famine of 1932–33 and the Crisis in Agriculture p. 69 et seq. [1]
  30. ^ Kotkin, Stephen (8 November 2017). "Terrible Talent: Studying Stalin". The American Interest (Interview). Interviewed by Richard Aldous.
  31. ^ Payaslian, Simon. "20th Century Genocides". Oxford bibliographies.
  32. ^ a b Cameron, Sarah (2018). The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-3044-3. p.123
  33. ^ TsGARK f. 44, op. 12, d. 492, ll. 54, 58
  34. ^ "Blacklisted Entities in Ukraine, 1932-1933".
  35. ^ a b "Total Direct Famine Losses of Population per 1,000 by Raion in Ukraine for 1933".
  36. ^ a b Environment, Empire, and the Great Famine in Stalin's Kazakhstan Niccolò Pianciola
  37. ^ a b Andriewsky, Olga (2015-01-23). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2 (1): 18–52. doi:10.21226/T2301N.
  38. ^ "Blacklisted Localities (Gallery)". gis.huri.harvard.edu. Retrieved Oct 23, 2022.
  39. ^ Papakin, Heorhii (2010-11-27). ""Chorni doshky" Holodomoru – ekonomichnyi metod znyshchennia hromadian URSR (SPYSOK)" ["Black boards" of the Holodomor: An economic method for the destruction of community members of the Ukrainian SSR (list)]. Istorychna Pravda (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2021-01-25.
  40. ^ Martin, Terry (2001). The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (paperback ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 306–307. ISBN 9780801486777. Retrieved 2 December 2021 – via Google Books. 'TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom have received information that in the Kuban and Ukraine a massive outflow of peasants 'for bread' has begun into Belorussia and the Central-Black Earth, Volga, Western, and Moscow regions. / TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom do not doubt that the outflow of peasants, like the outflow from Ukraine last year, was organized by the enemies of Soviet power, the SRs and the agents of Poland, with the goal of agitation 'through the peasantry' ... TsK VKP/b/ and Sovnarkom order the OGPU of Belorussia and the Central-Black Earth, Middle Volga, Western and Moscow regions to immediately arrest all 'peasants' of Ukraine and the North Caucasus who have broken through into the north and, after separating out the counterrevolutionariy elements, to return the rest to their place of residence.' ... Molotov, Stalin
  41. ^ Werth, Nicholas (1999). "A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union". In Courtois, Stéphane (ed.). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Translated by Mark Kraemer; Jonathan Murphy (illustrated hardcover ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 164. ISBN 9780674076082. Retrieved 2 December 2021 – via Google Books.
  42. ^ Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4). Routledge: 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. S2CID 53655536. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007.
  43. ^ Kotkin, Stephen (8 November 2017). "Terrible Talent: Studying Stalin". The American Interest (Interview). Interviewed by Richard Aldous. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  44. ^ a b Tauger, Mark (1 July 2018). "Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'". History News Network. George Washington University. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  45. ^ Wolowyna, Oleh (October 2020). "A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (4): 501–526. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741. S2CID 226316468.
  46. ^ Kuhr, Corinna (1998). "Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges". Cahiers du Monde russe. 39 (1/2): 209–20. doi:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520. ISSN 1252-6576. JSTOR 20171081 – via JSTOR. According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials [...]
  47. ^ François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). "The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region". Paris Institute of Political Studies. The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror [...] The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document translated in Werth, 2006: 143).
  48. ^ Ellman, Michael (2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 54 (7): 1151–72. doi:10.1080/0966813022000017177. S2CID 43510161. The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history
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  50. ^ Werth, Nicolas (2010-05-20). "The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 - November 1938)". Sciences Po. Retrieved 2022-01-06.
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  67. ^ Nagorski, Andrew (18 September 2007). The Greatest Battle. Simon and Schuster. p. 84. ISBN 9781416545736. Retrieved 2013-12-30.
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  70. ^ LORINCZI, SETH (10 June 2022). "Witness to a Massacre: The Kamianets-Podilskyi Experiment". Moment. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  71. ^ Nicholson, Katie; Seminoff, Corinne; Ho, Jason (March 22, 2021) [March 21, 2021]. "Jews in Russian city scarred by WWII massacre watch Canada's decision on Nazi interpreter". CBC News.
  72. ^ Christian Gerlach (1999). Kalkulierte Morde: Die deutsche Wirtschafts- und Vernichtungspolitik in Weißrußland 1941 bis 1944 [Calculated Murder: The German economic and annihilation policy in Belorussia 1941 to 1944] (in German). Hamburger Edition, Hamburg. pp. 206, 614, 702. ISBN 3930908549.
  73. ^ "«Дядя, я хочу жить, не стреляйте в меня…». Расстрел детей Нижнечирского детского дома – СЕКРЕТЁВ.РФ". секретёв.рф (in Russian). 1 April 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2023. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  74. ^ "В 1942 году эсэсовцы в станице Нижне-Чирской расстреляли 47 воспитанников детского дома: varjag2007su — LiveJournal" (in Russian). 23 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  75. ^ Alfred de Zayas : Wehrmacht investigative body. Universitas, Munich 2001, p 318
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  78. ^ "Здесь была жизнь: в Ленобласти зажгли лампады в память о жертвах «русской Хатыни» – деревни Большое Заречье – Online47.ru". online47.ru (in Russian). 28 October 2022. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  79. ^ "79 лет прошло с массовой казни жителей деревни Красуха Порховского района – ПЛН". pln24.ru (in Russian). 27 November 2022. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
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  83. ^ "Сокрушимая "дружба народов". Чеченский погром 1951 года в Казахстане - Жорик – историк - Дзен". Zen News (in Russian). 11 December 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  84. ^ "Воркутинское восстание в ГУЛАГе было мирным протестом. Который расстреляли - АРГУМЕНТ". argumentua.com (in Russian). 25 September 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
  85. ^ Shturma, Yana (26 May 2022). "«Нас убивают! Не будем работать!» Как восстание в Норильске привело к развалу ГУЛАГа - Газета.Ru". Gazeta.Ru (in Russian). Retrieved 15 March 2004.
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  89. ^ "За Сталина, за свободу: разгон просталинских демонстраций в Тбилиси в 1956-м - ОВД-Инфо". OVD-Info (in Russian). 11 March 2019. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
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Further reading

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