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Transportation

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Roads

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Main article: Roads in Kerala
NH 544 Six lane Thrissur – Vadakkencherry
Thamarassery Churam (Mountain pass)

Kerala has 331,904 kilometres (206,236 mi) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.[1][2] This translates to about 9.94 kilometres (6.18 mi) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87 kilometres (3.03 mi) in the country.[1][2] Roads in Kerala include 1,812 kilometres (1,126 mi) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4,342 kilometres (2,698 mi) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27,470 kilometres (17,070 mi) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33,201 kilometres (20,630 mi) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158,775 kilometres (98,658 mi) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.[3] Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among the districts of Kerala, while Wayanad accounts for minimum.[4] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[5] New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under KIIFB.[6] National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008 mi)) connects Kanyakumari to Mumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady in Kasargod and passes through Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram before entering Tamil Nadu.[5] Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, is on NH 544, in the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[7]

A panoramic view of Vyttila Mobility Hub integrated transit terminal in the city of Kochi

The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.[8] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.[9][10] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[11] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.[12][13] The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.[14] As of 2013, Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.[15]

State transport corporation

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Main article: Kerala State Road Transport Corporation

Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937.

The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from 1,200,000 kilometres (750,000 mi) to 1,422,546 kilometres (883,929 mi),[16] using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.[17][18]

The Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation.[4] It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at Thevara.[19]

Railways

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Main article: List of Railway Stations in Kerala


Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad.[20] The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division and Palakkad Railway Division.[21] Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.[22] Kerala's major railway stations are:

The first railway line in the state was laid from Tirur to Chaliyam (Kozhikode), with the oldest Railway Station at Tirur, passing through Tanur, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and Kadalundi.[23][24] The railway was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram through Tirunavaya in the same year.[24] It was again extended from Kuttippuram to Shoranur through Pattambi in 1862, resulting in the establishment of Shoranur Junction railway station, which is also the largest railway junction in the state.[24] Major railway transport between Chaliyam–Tirur began on 12 March 1861,[24] from Tirur-Shoranur in 1862,[24] from Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section in 1902, from Kollam–Sengottai on 1 July 1904, Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-Shoranur in 1927, from Ernakulam–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the Thrissur-Guruvayur Section in 1994.[25] The Nilambur–Shoranur line is one of the shortest broad gauge railway lines in India.[26] It was established in the British era for the transportation of Nilambur teaks and Angadipuram Laterite to United Kingdom through the port at Kozhikode.[26] The presence of Palakkad Gap on Western Ghats makes the Shoranur Junction railway station important as it connects the southwestern coast of India (Mangalore) with the southeastern coast (Chennai).[27]

Kochi Metro

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Main article: Kochi Metro
Kochi Metro train at Palarivattom Metro station

Kochi Metro is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of ₹51.81 billion (US$620 million).[28][29] The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long Metropolis train sets built and designed by Alstom.[30][31][32] It is the first metro system in India to use a communication-based train control (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication.[33] In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the Urban Development Ministry, as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.[34]

Airports

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Main article: List of airports in Kerala state
Cochin International Airport, the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy

Kerala has four international airports:

Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.[35] Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when Tata airlines operated weekly flights between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at Goa and Kannur.[36] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the Airport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the Malabar region.[37] Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy[38] and has won the coveted Champion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations.[39] Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.[40] Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.

Water transport

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Main article: Ports in Kerala
Cranes at the Cochin Shipyard

Kerala has one major port, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports. The major port in the state is at Kochi, which has an area of 8.27 km2.[41] The Vizhinjam International Seaport, which is currently classified as an intermediate port, is an upcoming major port under construction.[41] Other intermediate ports include Beypore, Kollam, and Azheekal.[41] The remaining ports are classified as minor which include Manjeshwaram, Kasaragod, Nileshwaram, Kannur, Thalassery, Vadakara, Ponnani, Munambam, Manakodam, Alappuzha, Kayamkulam, Neendakara, and Valiyathura.[41] The Kerala Maritime Institute is headquartered at Neendakara, which has an additional subcentre at Kodungallur too.[41] The state has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1,687 kilometres (1,048 mi).[42] The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.

The 616 kilometres (383 mi) long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting Kasaragod to Poovar.[19] It is divided into five sections: 41 kilometres (25 mi) long Kasaragod-Nileshwaram reach, 188 kilometres (117 mi) long Nileshwaram-Kozhikode reach, 160 kilometres (99 mi) Kozhikode-Kottapuram reach, 168 kilometres (104 mi) long National Waterway 3 (Kottapuram-Kollam reach), and 74 kilometres (46 mi) long Kollam-Vizhinjam reach.[1] The Conolly Canal, which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of Kozhikode with Kochi through Ponnani, passing through the districts of Malappuram and Thrissur. It begins at Vadakara.[43] It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then District collector of Malabar, H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to Kallayi Port from hinter lands of Malabar through Kuttiady and Korapuzha river systems.[43] It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through Ponnani, for more than a century.[43] Other important waterways in Kerala include the Alappuzha-Changanassery Canal, Alappuzha-Kottayam-Athirampuzha Canal, and Kottayam-Vaikom Canal.[41]

Demographics

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Main article: Demographics of Kerala
See also: Ethnic groups in Kerala and List of people from Kerala
Population trend
YearPop.±%
195113,549,118—    
196116,903,715+24.8%
197121,347,375+26.3%
198125,453,680+19.2%
199129,098,518+14.3%
200131,841,374+9.4%
201133,406,061+4.9%
19016,396,262−80.9%
19117,147,673+11.7%
19217,802,127+9.2%
19319,507,050+21.9%
194111,031,541+16.0%
Source:[44]
The Population pyramid of Kerala

Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.[45] As of 2011, Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[46] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%.[45] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[45] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[47] Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.[48] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[45] The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[49]: 10–12 

 
Largest cities or towns in Kerala
2011 Census of India[46]
As per the population within their respective Municipal Corporation/Municipality limits
Rank District Pop.
Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram
Kozhikode
Kozhikode 		1 Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram district 968,990 Kochi
Kochi
Kollam
Kollam
2 Kozhikode Kozhikode district 609,224
3 Kochi Ernakulam district 602,046
4 Kollam Kollam district 388,288
5 Thrissur Thrissur district 315,957
6 Kannur Kannur district 232,486
7 Alappuzha Alappuzha district 180,856
8 Kottayam Kottayam district 138,283
9 Palakkad Palakkad district 131,019
10 Manjeri Malappuram district 97,102

Gender

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There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.[50] As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[51] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,[52] which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.[53]

Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men.[54]: 2  While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.[55][56][57]

LGBT rights

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Main article: LGBT rights in Kerala
Participants at a pride parade in Thrissur in October 2018

Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in India.[58] Kerala is one of the first states in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free sex reassignment surgery through government hospitals.[59][60][61] Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisation in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.[62] Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala[63]

In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.[64][65]

In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.[66]

Human Development Index

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See also: Kerala Model
Human Development Index map for Indian states in 2006, as calculated by Government of India and United Nations Development Programme.[67]

As of 2015, Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[68] It was 0.790 in 2007–08[69] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[69] Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education, health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[70][71] the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[72][73] However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[70] Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.[74]

According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.[75][76][77] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011.[78] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[79] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[80] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[81] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[82][83] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[84][85]: 48 

Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway;.[54]: 1  as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60,[85] and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1,000.[86] According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in Malappuram district (2.2) and lowest in Pathanamthitta district (1.3).[87] In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.[88] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)[89] Transparency International (2005)[90] and India Today (1997).[91] Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[92] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage,[93] complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[53] The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly higher among the Muslim community.[94][95] In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.[96]

In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[97] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,[98] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[99] The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[100]

Healthcare

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Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum
Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal

Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care program.[101] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[84][86]: 49  to 14[102]: 5  deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.[103] According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[104] However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively as of 2005.[102]: 5  Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations.[86] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers.[105]: 5–7  As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.[106]

The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[107][108] Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.[109] Ayurveda,[110]: 13  siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[111] These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[110]: 5–6  and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[110]: 15  The Arya Vaidya Sala established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier at Kottakkal (about 10 km from Malappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.[112][113][114] It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.[112][113][114]

In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[115] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers, liver and kidney diseases.[116] In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[117] As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.[118]

Language

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Languages of Kerala (2011)[119]

  Malayalam (97.02%)
  Tamil (1.49%)
  Others (1.5%)

Malayalam, one of the six Classical languages of India,[120] is the most widely spoken language in Kerala, where its teaching in schools is mandatory. There is a significant Tamil population in Idukki district, which accounts for 17.48% of its total population.[121] Tulu and Kannada are spoken mainly in the northern parts of Kasaragod district, each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.[121][122]

Religion

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Main article: Religion in Kerala
Jain Temple at Sultan Bathery.
Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple.
Model of original Cheraman Juma Mosque.
St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor.
Paradesi Synagogue.

Religion in Kerala (2011)[123]

  Hinduism (54.73%)
  Islam (26.56%)
  Christianity (18.38%)
  Other or none (0.32%)

Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant Muslim and Christian minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[124] According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.[125] Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[126] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[127] As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.[128]

The mythological legends regarding the origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature. Kerala produced several saints and movements. Adi Shankara was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of Advaita. He was instrumental in establishing four mathas at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Jyotirmath. Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri was another religious figure who composed Narayaniyam, a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God Krishna.

Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[129][130] Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam.[131][132][133] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[134][135] According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632).[136][137][138][139] According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.[140] It is believed that Malik Dinar was died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.[141] According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, on the western side of Kerala, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott.[142] A few Umayyad (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.[143]

According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.[144][143] The monopoly of overseas spice trade from Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.[145] The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned within the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.[146][145] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.[147] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Kerala king to the Muslims of Kerala.[147] A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[148] Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion—secured by the common interest in the spice trade—helped in this development.[149] Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the Shāfiʿī school of religious law (Samastha Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema) while a large minority follow movements that developed within Sunni Islam. The latter section consists of majority Salafists (Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen). There is a large Keralan diaspora in the Middle East.[150][151]

Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ.[152][153][154][155] Saint Thomas Christians include Syro-Malabar Catholic,[156] Syro-Malankara Catholic,[157] Jacobite Syrian Christian Church,[158] Mar Thoma Syrian Church,[159] Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church,[160] the Syrian Anglicans of the CSI[161] and several Pentecostal and evangelical[162] denominations. The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century.[163][164][165] As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of Anglo-Indians in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.[166]

Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of King Solomon.[167] They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India.[168][169] There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel.[170] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth.[171] Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district.[172][173]

Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka[174] but vanished by the 12th century CE.[175] Certain Hindu communities such as the Samantan Kshatriyas, Ambalavasis, Nairs, Thiyyas and some Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam,[176][177] although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence.[178] Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris, most of the Ambalavasi castes and the Ezhavas followed makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[179][180] Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.[181] However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.[182]: 1 

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