The intrahepatic approach

Such approach is typically preferred in cases where the papilla is not endoscopically accessible due to gastric outlet obstruction, to an obstructing proximal duodenal tumor, or in patients with surgically altered anatomy. Dilatation of intrahepatic ducts is compulsory to perform this approach. Cancer infiltration of the gastric wall within the planned path of approach to the biliary ducts or massive ascites and coagulopathy are contraindications to this type of approach.

With the tip of the echoendoscope positioned along the lesser curvature of the stomach, the dilated left hepatic duct (segment III) can be correctly visualized. Transgastric needle (19-22 G) insertion into the left hepatic duct and contrast injection clearly show the biliary tree under fluoroscopy. The next step is to exchange the needle over a guidewire for a 6.5-Fr cystotome used to create the fistula between the stomach and the left hepatic duct with a cutting current. Either plastic stents or self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) are then positioned over the guidewire (hepatic-gastric stent) or advancing the guidewire across the stricture and the papilla to complete an antegrade stent placement.

This kind of technique is not actually standardized, and no pooled data is available comparing the efficacy of different devices. The choice of the needle is still in debate because some operators suggest the 19 G needle because the large diameter reduced the risk of shearing the guidewire coating during manipulation although the 19 G needle can be stiffer and more difficult to handle compared to a 22 G needle. Usually a hydrophilic guidewire is preferred because strictures can be crossed more easily. The 0.025-inch guidewire, which fits a 22 G needle, can help during manipulation maneuvers due to its flexibility. However, it can make the stent insertion challenging due to the lack of stiffness and the less stable scope position.

The optimal biliary access points and learning curves for technically successful EUS-HGA have been evaluated by Oh et al[18] in 129 consecutive patients who underwent EUS-HGA. For each EUS-HGA session the following measurements were taken: intrahepatic bile duct diameter at the point of puncture, the hepatic portion length and bile duct segment for each needle puncture attempt, and procedure times (from initial bile duct puncture to final transmural stenting).

In the logistic regression model, low technical success rates were related with intrahepatic bile duct diameter of puncture site ≤ 5 mm (OR: 3.7; 95%CI: 1.71–8.1; P < 0.01) and hepatic portion length > 3 cm (OR: 5.7; 95%CI: 2.7–12; P < 0.01). The learning curve for technical success was evaluated by measuring procedure time and adverse events by using the moving average method and cumulative sum analysis, respectively. Procedure times and adverse events were shorter after 24 cases had been performed by the same operator and became stable at 33 cases of EUS-HGA.

These data suggest that a bile duct diameter > 5 mm and hepatic portion length 1 cm to ≤ 3 cm on EUS may guide the choice for the optimal site of puncture for successful EUS-HGA and that 33 cases of EUS-HGA are needed to achieve technical proficiency.

A crucial step for technical success is the creation of a fistula, which can potentially have an impact on complications such as biliary leakage, bilioperitoneum, or perforation. In order to insert the stent, the dilatation of the fistula is compulsory and can be performed by using balloon dilatators, stiff gradual catheters, needle knives, and cystotomes with cutting current. Advancing of stiff catheter may create tissue resistance forming a gap between the stomach and the liver with post-procedural biliary leak. Balloon dilatation also generates radial force, which is why some endoscopists prefer 6.5-Fr cystotomes. In a recent meta-analysis of EUS-BD technique, Wang et al[19] reported adverse event rates of 19.68% (49/249) with needle knife, 20.37% (44/216) with balloon catheter, and 38.46% (10/26) with cystotome.

The choice of the stent depends on the indication (benign vs malignant), the degree of ductal dilatation, whether the wire could cross the anastomosis, the length of fistula tract, and surgical indication for the patient[20]. In the first reported cases of HGA, plastic stents involved significant post-procedural biliary leakage. The use of fully covered self-expandable metal stents may cause side biliary duct obstruction, cholangitis, and significant stent migration. To prevent these complications, Giovannini et al[11] used the “stent-in-stent technique” with insertion of two metal stents: firstly, an uncovered metal 8-10 cm stent is placed to prevent migration and to occlude side biliary branch; secondly, a fully covered 6 cm stent is placed in the uncovered stent to prevent the biliary leakage. Recently, Song et al[21] reported no proximal or distal stent migration in any of the 27 patients who had undergone EUS-BD using a hybrid metal stent (Standard Sci Tech Inc, Seoul, South Korea) partially covered by SEMS (uncovered in the intrahepatic portion and covered in the transmural distal). SEMS are considered an interesting option compared to plastic stents due to a bigger caliber and longer patency especially when reintervention for stent substitution is not required.

The extrahepatic approach

The extrahepatic approach, including EUS-CDS and, when feasible, choledochoantrostomy, is usually performed in case of failure of selective cannulation of the common biliary duct because of ampullary neoplasm, neoplastic infiltration from pancreatic cancer, or when the access to the papilla is prevented by benign (peptic stenosis) or malignant duodenal stenosis. In all these cases, there is no consensus about the choice between the intrahepatic or the extrahepatic approach depending on the endoscopist’s discretion and expertise. More recently some authors have described gallbladder drainage for biliary drainage in patients with distal biliary obstruction and patent cystic duct[22,23] meaning that this technique can be literally considered an extrahepatic approach.

The tip of the echoendoscope is advanced to the duodenal bulb or, when feasible, to the antrum wall where the dilated common biliary duct is closer to the wall. Likewise, in the extrahepatic approach technique, the access to the bile duct is achieved with a 19-gauge EUS needle with subsequent bile aspiration, 0.035-inch guidewire manipulation into the intrahepatic tree, dilatation of the fistula, and stent insertion. Because stent migration is the main post procedural complication, similarly to HGA, some endoscopists prefer 4 cm or more, fully covered biliary metal stents. However, the use of these stents can make reintervention more difficult, and duodenal trauma and even perforation can be caused by the distal portion of the stent.

Clinical efficacy and safety of EUS-CDS versus endoscopic transpapillary stenting (ETS) as first-line treatment were tested by Kawakubo et al[24] in 82 patients with distal malignant biliary obstruction. The found equivalent clinical success rates (EUS-CDS 96.2%, ETS 98.2%; P = 0.54) and overall adverse event rates (EUS-CDS 26.9%, ETS 35.7%; P = 0.46). However, a shorter mean procedural time was found with EUS-CDS rather than with ETS (19.7 min vs 30.2 min; P < 0.01)[24]. These data were confirmed by Nakai et al[25] in a prospective multicenter study.

Lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) were first introduced to drain peripancreatic fluid collections, but recently they have been used for EUS-BD. The stent includes a full silicone covered, wider lumen and bigger flanges to prevent tissue ingrowth, provide fast drainage, reduce the risk of migration with biliary leakage, and allow removability. New cautery-enhanced delivery systems (Hot AXIOS device, Boston Scientific) are available allowing EUS-BD in one step with no need for prior needle puncture, guidewire insertion, or fluoroscopy. Biliary duct dilatation and a distance of no more than 10 mm are required to avoid stent migration, leakage, and pressure necrosis.

EUS-CDS using a LAMS was proposed as an alternative approach for patients with malignant obstructive jaundice and ERCP failure. Tsuchiya et al[26] evaluated prospectively the long-term outcome (median: 184 d; range: 12-819) in 19 patients undergoing EUS-CDS using a fully covered LAMS with a cautery-enhanced delivery system. Technical success was achieved in all patients and jaundice improvement in 95% of patients (18/19).

No intraprocedural adverse events were recorded, but the post procedure related adverse events ratio was 15.8% [3/19; acute cholangitis (n = 2) and fever (n = 1)]. Five patients had secondary stent obstruction because of food residue (n = 2), kinking (n =1), suspected tumor ingrowth (n = 1), and spontaneous dislodgement (n = 1) with reintervention in four of these five patients. The authors suggested that food impaction and bile duct kinking were consequences of the small diameter of the LAMS (6-8 mm diameter could have shorter patency compared to 10 mm diameter) and of the absence of the spontaneous outflow of the bile after decompression. The efficacy of EUS-CDS using the LAMS was recently confirmed by Anderloni et al[27] in a retrospective analysis in 46 patients. They reported technical and clinical success rates of 93.5% and 97.7%, respectively. However, adverse events were found in five patients (11.6%) with one fatal bleeding 17 d after stent placement, three episodes of stent occlusion (food impaction), and one of spontaneous migration (all four required reintervention). Despite these encouraging results, the authors suggested a careful evaluation before using the stent in this clinical setting due to serious adverse events.

Recently, EUS-GBD was reported to be useful for acute cholecystitis in patients unfit for surgery. Jang et al[28] found that EUS-GBD was comparable to percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage in terms of technical feasibility, efficacy, and safety of the procedures. In a pooled analysis on the efficacy and safety of EUS-GBD with LAMS in nonoperative candidates with acute cholecystitis, Kalva et al[29] showed that technical success represented 93.86% (95%CI: 90.56-96.49) while clinical success was obtained in 92.48% (95%CI: 88.9-95.42). The overall complication rate was 18.31% (95%CI: 13.49-23.68), and the stent related complication rate in the pooled percentage of patients was 8.16% (95%CI: 4.03-14.96).

Some authors reported encouraging results with EUS-GBD in case of failure to treat malignant distal biliary obstruction and cystic duct patent. Imai et al[22] reported technical success rates and functional success rate of 100% and 91.7%, respectively with 16.7% of adverse events in a series of 12 patients with obstructive jaundice due to unresectable malignant distal biliary stricture who underwent EUS-GBD after ERCP failure.

The rendez-vous technique

EUS-RV is considered a second-line approach in case of ERCP failure due to juxtapapillary diverticulum or ampullary cancer. Once the dilated intrahepatic or extrahepatic duct is identified and punctured with the 19-gauge EUS aspiration needle, a long (450 cm) 0.035-inch or 0.025-inch guidewire is inserted downstream through the stenosis and into the duodenum.

The echoendoscope is withdrawn leaving the wire in place, and a duodenoscope is inserted to grasp the wire into the scope channel with forceps or a snare. The traditional cannulation over the wire is then performed to access the biliary duct. Crossing the stenosis and the papilla with the guidewire can be difficult and the need to exchange endoscopes may prolong procedural time. This kind of approach is generally preferred for benign indications because there is no anatomical alteration of the biliary duct as when the fistula is created with subsequent stent placement in EUS-HGA or EUS-CDS. The site of the puncture (duodenal bulb, second portion, and stomach) has been examined by Iwashita et al[30] in 20 patients after failed cannulation. The guidewire was successfully manipulated in 100% (10/10) with the second portion (D2) approach, and 66.7% (6/9) with other approaches, thus suggesting that the extrahepatic approach from D2 may improve the success rate of EUS-RV.

EUS-RV seems to be the safest of all three approaches[31] and has been supported by several studies. Safety and efficacy of EUS–RV have been evaluated by Iwashita et al[32] in 40 patients who underwent salvage EUS–RV immediately after failed biliary cannulation. Successful manipulation of the guidewire into the small intestine was achieved in 29 of 40 patients. Five patients (13%) had complications including pancreatitis, abdominal pain, pneumoperitoneum, and sepsis/death, which were believed to be unrelated to the procedure.